THE 



CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 



BY 

WILLIAM E. SMYTHE 

ILLUSTRATOD 




HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS 

NEW YORK AND LONDON 

1900 



TWO COPIES RECElVEi3, 

Library of Congrei^ 
Office of thi 

MAY 1 5 1900 

Hegliter of CopyrlgktK 
SECOND COPY, S C 8y 



B17*- 






Copyright, 1900. by WitUAM E. Smytue. 
AU rigkt$ ruened. 



TO 

MY WIFE 



CONTENTS 



PAET FIRST 

cuAPTEB COLONIAL EXPANSION AT HOME pack 

I. Greatness by Continental Conquest 3 

II. The Home - Building Instinct op the American 

People 13 

III. The Better Half of the United States .... 19 

IV. The Blessing of Aridity 30 

V. The Miracle op Irrigation 41 



PART SECOND 

REAL UTOPIAS OF THE ARID WEST 

I. The Mormon Commonwealth 51 

II. The Greeley Colony op Colorado -. . 77 

III. The Evolution of Southern California .... 93 

IV. The Revolution on the Plains 106 



PART THIRD 

UNDEVELOPED AMERICA 

I. The Truth about California 121 

II. The New Day in Colorado 150 

III. The Pleasant Land op Utah 164 

IV. The Crude Strength op Idaho * 174 

V. Arid Washington and Oregon 185 

VI. The Potential Greatness op Nevada 194 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII. Wyoming, Law-Giver of the Arid Region . . . 207 

VIII. The Prosperity of Montana 222 

IX. The Awakening of New Mexico 228 

X. The Budding Civilization of Arizona .... 237 



PART FOUKTH 

THE ARMY OF THE HALF-EMPLOYED 

I. The Surplus People 247 

II. Why the People Do Not Go to the Land . . . 253 

III. Colonization with Co-operative Capital . . . 260 

IV. Colony Plans and Institutions 276 

V. The Administration of Co-operative Settlement 285 

VI. Adjusting Old Ideals to New Conditions . . . 298 

VII. LooKENG Forward to the Greater Republic . . 308 



APPENDIX 

Note as to Methods of Irrigation 311 



INDEX 321 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



A TYPICAL MOUNTAIN STREAM IN THE ARID REGION 
— MOUTH OF ECnO CANYON, UTAH, SHOWING 
WEBER RIVER Frontispiece 

CALIFORNIA CONTRAST — PICKING FLOWERS AT PASA- 
DENA, WITH THE SNOW SEVEN FEET DEEP ON 
MOUNT WILSON ' . . . . Facing p. 94 

IRRIGATING SEVEN HUNDRED ACRES OF LEMON-TREES 

AT SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA " 138 

ARTESIAN WELL AT ZILLAH, WASHINGTON .... " 188 

FURROW IRRIGATION FOR VEGETABLES AT EXPERI- 
MENT STATION, WYOMING " 214 

DIVISION BOX AT BOZEMAN, MONTANA, SHOWING 
METHOD OF TURNING WATER INTO LATERALS 
FOR IRRIGATING THE FIELD " 224 



MAPS 

ARID AMERICA Facing p. 24 

ARID AMERICA (THE STRIKING SIMILARITY BETWEEN 

PALESTINE AND SALT LAKE VALLEY, UTAIl) . . " 54 

LOCATION OF CO-OPERATIVE INDUSTRIES IN IRELAND " 292 



/ 



PREFACE 



The man who removes from a crowded neighbor- 
hood in New England to a sparsely settled locality 
in the Far West will be struck with the immensity 
of the country which awaits settlement and develop- 
ment. He will not be long in discovering that the 
new land possesses certain advantages of climate, 
soil, and other natural resources over the place 
whence he came. If he has the slightest interest in 
social and economic things, he will find himself specu- 
lating on the anomaly of surplus people in one place 
and surplus land in another — on the stern fact of a 
region of landless man and a region of manless land, 
and both under the same flag. Such was the author's 
experience ; hence this book. 

The materials for this sketch have been gathered 
by ten years of life, work, and study in various parts 
of the West. During that period the writer's oppor- 
tunities to observe resources and institutions were 
unusually favorable, since his work as editor of The 
Irrigation Age and an officer of the National Irriga- 
tion Congress took him repeatedly to all the States 

ix 



PREFACE 

and Territories of the arid region and to nearly every 
valley or settlement of special interest. These oppor- 
tunities were utilized to the fullest extent. The his- 
tory of colonies has more often been learned from 
the lips of pioneers than from books or documents. 
The causes of successes and failures in settlement, 
and the merits of various social and industrial plans 
suo-o-ested in these pages as best adapted to future 
colonization effort, have been discussed at many a 
western fireside with the men and women who are 
dealing practically with such problems. If this por- 
tion of the book has any value, it consists in the fact 
that on every possible occasion it has been discussed 
with the earnest people who are themselves engaged 
in making homes in western valleys. 

A list of those who have been helpful to the author 
in assembling the facts used in these pages would in- 
clude nearly all the men prominent in the irrigation 
work of the western States. It is not unfair, how- 
ever, to make especial mention of the author's obliga- 
tions to Frederick H. Newell, of the United States 
Geological Survey ; to Elwood Mead, State Engineer 
of Wyoming ; to A. Milton Musser, historian of the 
Mormon Church, and to David Boyd, historian of 
the Greeley Colony, Colorado. 

Of the books which have been most useful in fur- 
nishing light for the larger aspects of the subject, Mr. 
Douglas Campbeirs The Puritan in Encjland, Hoi- 
land, and America, Mr. Theodore Eoosevelt's The 
Winning of fhp WcrU Mr. Andrew Carnegie's Tri- 



PREFACE 

umphant Democracy^ and M. Edinond Demolius's 
Anglo-Saxon Superiority ^ are gratefully mentioned. 

Certain chapters of the book first appeared as 
contributions to The Century Magazine^ The Atlan- 
tic Monthly^ The Forum^ and The North American 
Review^ and the author is indebted to the courtesy 
of the editors of those magazines for the right to re- 
produce them here. 

The acceptance which the author's work on similar 
lines has found in American periodicals, and the fact 
of a wider interest evidenced by translations into three 
foreign languages, is one reason for the publication of 
this book. But a better one is the author's convic- 
tion that the time is ripe for the occupation of the 
great West by the masses of our people, and his 
earnest hope that this book will be of some value in 
throwing light upon their pathway to homes and 
independence. 

William E. Smythe. 

STANDisn, California, August, 1899. 



INTRODUCTION 



THE TWENTIETH -CENTURY OPPORTUNITY 

The true opportunity of the American people lies 
not in the tropical islands of the Pacific and Carib- 
bean, but in the vast unsettled regions of their own 
country. Their true mission is not to impose their 
dominion upon distant lands and alien peoples, but to 
work out the highest forms of civilization for their 
own race and nationality. 

The advocates of colonial expansion abroad argue 
that hitherto we have been engaged in the conquest 
of this continent, and declare that this work is now 
done. But it is not done. There is room for one 
hundred million people in the States and Territories 
between the Missouri river and the Pacific Ocean. In 
that vast region there is a population of but three to 
the square mile, while in the Philippine Islands there 
are sixty, a density of settlement twenty times as 
great. 

But the material opportunity is neither the single 
nor the most urgent claim of Arid America to the 

xiii 



INTRODUCTION 

nation's attention. It offers the best field in all the 
world for the expansion of ideas and the development 
of institutions. This is no less important to mankind 
than the expansion of trade and the development of 
natural resources. 

Under the policy of continental solidarity and of 
holding aloof from the political entanglements of 
Europe and Asia, the American people have grown 
rich and populous beyond any other nation in history. 
If they now choose to abandon the course which led 
them to greatness by the shortest and easiest path, it 
is not because they are compelled by physical limita- 
tions to seek another field for expansion. Or if they 
abandon republican for imperialistic ideals it is not 
because the former lacks favorable soil in which to 
plant and nurture new growths suited to the changed 
conditions of the times. 

We shall see in the following pages how the nation- 
al prosperity of the past came as the rich reward of 
developing the material resources of the continent, 
and how the inspiration for three remarkable eras of 
colonization — along the Atlantic seaboard, through 
the interior from Lakes to Gulf, and in the valley of 
the Mississippi — sprang not from lust of power or of 
trade, but from home -building instincts peculiar to 
our race and people. We shall then observe what 
vast resources yet remain to be used, and how the 
physical conditions of the vacant half-continent in the 
West mark its future civilization as inevitably differ- 
ent, in important respects, from that of the East. 

xiv 



INTRODUCTION 

In our study of typical communities which have 
grown up among western plains and mountains dur- 
ing the past half -century, we shall see how the pi- 
oneers unconsciously shaped their institutions to suit 
an environment hitherto unknown to men of English 
speech, and how these institutions, with the tenden- 
cies they set in motion, fortunately conform to new 
economic conditions in which machinery and large 
capital play so important a part. 

In our review of the States and Territories which 
compose Undeveloped America, we shall behold their 
material achievement and the state of their civiliza- 
tion at the close of the present century, and the wide 
opportunities which wait upon the future. 

We shall then seek to find the relation between the 
crowded population and superabundant capital which 
have accumulated in the old States, and the sur- 
plus resources of lands, forests, minerals, and water- 
power lying unused in the West. We shall consider 
how surplus men and money may be brought to sur- 
plus resources, and applied, under sound business prin- 
ciples, to the making of homes, industries, and insti- 
tutions in consonance with the traditions of our race 
and the genius of our people. 

Whatever may be the nation's ultimate policy in 
the Pacific — whether to rule or to emancipate — the 
new impulse now clearly apparent in the intellectual 
and industrial life of that part of the world will ma- 
terially assist the settlement of the Far West, and 
indefinitely widen the market for its products. The 

XV 



INTRODUCTION 

development of all the lands around the borders of 
the Pacific, the rise of Alaska and the North, the 
opening of Russia's new highway from Europe across 
Siberia to Asiatic shores, the building of the Isthmian 
Canal, with the cheap and ready access it will give to 
both the American and European coasts of the Atlan- 
tic — these great events all prophesy the rapid settle- 
ment of western America during the twentieth cen- 
tury. It lies there now a clean, blank page, awaiting 
the makers of history — the goodly heritage of our 
people. 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 



Ipact $ix6t 
COLONIAL EXPANSION AT HOME 

" In 1850 she [the United States] passed Austria. In 1860 it was 
her motbedand to whom she held out her hand lovingly as she 
swept by. lu 1870 she overtook and passed France. In 1880 she 
had outstripped the German Empire ; and now, in 1890, she is left 
without a competitor to contend with except giant Russia. All the 
others she has left behind. Another decade, and the sound of the 
rushing Republic close behind will astonish even Russia, with its 
eighty-six millions in Europe. Yet another decade, and it, too 
like all the rest, will fall behind to watch for a time the new nation 
m advance, until it forges so far forward as to pass beyond her ken, 
when five hundred millions, every one an American, and all boast- 
ing a common citizenship, will dominate the world— for the world's 
good."— Andeew Carnegie, Triumj^hunt Democracy. 



CHAPTER I 

GREATNESS BY CONTINENTAL CONQUEST 

The economic greatness of the United States is the 
fruit of a policy of peaceful conquest over the resources 
of a virgin continent. Without this great item of raw 
material, the finished product which the world aoknowl- 
edges in the industrial America of to-day would have 
been impossible. 

The true career of the American people as a race of 
empire-builders dates not from the founding of James- 
town, New Amsterdam, and Plymouth, but from the 
surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and the subsequent 
inauguration of George Washington as the first President 
of the United States. The early settlers wore merely 
European sentinels standing guard over a treasure of 
continental magnitude which tliey neither compre- 
hended nor appreciated. The tobacco-raisers of Vir- 
ginia, the fur.traders of New York, and the religious 
enthusiasts of New England had no conception of a 
national destiny or mission. They looked backward to 
tlie civilization whence they had come, rather than for- 
ward to the conquest and subjugation of the mightier 
empire on whose eastern shores they had set their reluc- 
tant feet. 

Only at the close of the successful war for indepen- 

3 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

deuce did the world begin to realize that the American 
was to be the master of the new continent for all time, 
and that his rule must move westward as naturally and 
inevitably as the sun in its course. Only when the new 
government, hewn out with the sword and cemented 
with the blood of its citizens, had been finally and firmly 
established, did the heterogeneous elements in the 
sparsely settled original States crystallize into a national 
spirit and a national character. From that hour the 
material development of the New World began in earnest. 
The people labored as with the vim and courage of him 
who works for himself. Men began to dream of an 
America which should be richer and more populous and 
powerful than even Europe. 

The war was over— the war was begun ! England had 
been shaken off by force of arms, and the other Euro- 
pean ties would be loosed by the arts of diplomacy; but 
it remained to wage war on the forest, the plain, the 
desert, and the mountain, and to create a better civil- 
ization than the world had seen. What millions of men 
and billions of dollars were employed and rewarded in 
the process— what workshops, and railroads, and farming 
districts were created in the wilderness— what cities, 
with swarming thousands of inhabitants, with homes 
and colleges and hospitals, were erected in the midst of 
the primeval silence— what States were carved from the 
woods and prairies— what unexpected commerce, born© 
in undreamed-of steamships, was sent to whiten the un- 
explored inland seas ! 

It is in the answer to these questions rather than in 
the poet's pcTan to democracy that the true explanation 
of the economic progress of the nation will be found. 

4 



CONTINENTAL CONQUEST 

It is not to be denied that the fact tliat the United 
States was heralded throughout the world as a ''free 
country" attracted millions of immigrants, nor that 
popular government and complete immunity from the 
demands of royal tribute left enterprise unhampered to 
a degree hitherto unknown. But a vast commerce can 
no more find sustenance solely in the written constitu- 
tion of a country than a starving prospector in the 
mountains can satisfy his appetite with scenery. 

It seems worth while to lay strong emphasis upon this 
point, because the somewhat general acceptance of the 
notion that America is the product of its institutions, 
rather than that its institutions are the product of 
America, has obscured the causes of past prosperity and 
belittled the importance of our undeveloped resources. 
Not until this fact is understood and acknowledged 
is it possible to comprehend, even vaguely, the incal- 
culable importance of the undeveloped regions in the 
western half of the United States. 

At the close of the Revolution the United States con- 
sisted of a fringe of settlements mostly confined to the 
Atlantic coast and the banks of important rivers on the 
eastern slope of the Alleghanies. Nominally, the nation- 
al domain extended westward to the Mississippi river, 
but practically there was no development beyond the 
thirteen original States. Even there the natural resour- 
ces of the country had scarcely been touched. Boston 
had a population of about eighteen thousand. New York 
of about thirty thousand, Philadelphia of about thirty- 
five thousand, Baltimore of about fifteen thousand. 
Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah, though of some 
importance politically, were mere straggling hamlets. 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Detroit, St. Louis, and New Orleans were French out- 
posts in the wilderness. Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, 
and Chicago; Omaha, Kansas City, Denver, Salt Lake, 
and San Francisco — these and scores of other cities now 
populous and powerful — Avere hidden in the womb of 
time. Of the country between the Alleghanies and the 
Mississippi far less was known than the world now knows 
of Africa. The vast domain lying between the Father 
of Waters and the Pacific Ocean was neither as well ex- 
plored nor as perfectly comprehended as the Arctic 
region is to-day. 

AVhen the men of the new Republic turned their backs 
on the Old World, in the double sense of politics and in- 
dustry, and faced the continental opportunity which 
awaited them, they entered upon the fiercest war of con- 
quest in all history. And the spoils of that war were to 
be in proportion to the magnificence of the task. 

The first effort at the subjugation of the wilderness 
was directed to the fields and the streams. The forest 
clearings were extended that agriculture might find room 
for expansion. The trees felled in the process were float- 
ed in the rivers to saw-mills driven by the current. The 
logs, transformed to lumber, supj^lied the material for 
millions of comfortable homes. In the mean time, the 
new farms fed the growing population of the towns, 
while a myriad of workshops, improved by inventions of 
which a robust necessity was the prolific mother, con- 
sumed and manufactured the textile materials from field 
and pasture. 

The step from the crude employments of the frontier 
to the manifold occupations of a modern industrial life 
was easy and natural. Fostered by a generous policy of 

6 



CONTINENTAL CONQUEST 

protection, and blessed by long years of peace, the work 
of development went on from generation to generation. 
In New England the raw material on which the workmen 
labored in fashioning a civilization was poorer than else- 
where. And yet it was on that sterile soil, in the midst 
of those rocks and hills, that industrial pre-eminence was 
first to be achieved. A citizen of Massachusetts once 
made the just boast that *' not one drop of water flows 
from our hills to the sea until its power has been three 
times multiplied by the mill wheels." Every stream was 
lined with factories, nearly every town had its peculiar 
industries and its growing crowds of skilled laborers, 
supporting the stores and shops with their trade, and 
filling the schools with their children. 

Not only in New England, which owed its serious en- 
ergy to the example and character of its founders, and 
its fierce industrial enthusiasm to a system of free labor, 
but equally in New York, in New Jersey, in Delaware, 
in Pennsylvania, and southward to the Floridian penin- 
sula, the army of labor marched on with irresistible ad- 
vance. It scaled the crests of the Alleghanies and opened 
yet greater valleys to the energy of men. It tunnelled 
into the earth and brought up the hidden stores of coal 
and iron ore. It tapped the subterranean reservoirs of 
natural gas and oil. 

With the rapid growth of a many-sided economic life 
the need of improved facilities for internal transportation 
arose and grew yearly more urgent. The natural water- 
courses, navigated by rafts and sailing craft, did not long 
suffice. The army of labor was set at work in building 
great highways and digging canals. Then came the 
steamboat, and, finally, the railroad with its iron horse. 

7 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Thns it was that the work of taming the wilderness 
went on with increasing fervor. Thus it was that thirty- 
two new States were added to the original thirteen. 
Thus it was that the national population was increased 
fourteen-f old, and that cities rivalling the greatest urban 
centres in the Old World, in size and wealth and power, 
were developed on the site of the colonial villages of the 
early days. Thus it was that the Republic was able to 
welcome, and to absorb into its apparently insatiable in- 
dustrial system, the millions of immigrants who flocked 
to its shores. 

During these days of rapid material expansion over 
new areas. Uncle Sam was the proprietor of the most gigan- 
tic employment bureau on earth. He had enough work 
for his own prodigious family of sons, and for the over- 
flow of all the families across the sea. He oft'ered the 
highest wages in the world-wide market. He distribu- 
ted his abounding prosperity through all channels of 
trade, all classes of industry, all grades of society. He 
made men and communities rich first by employing 
their energies in the conversion of the wilderness into a 
civilization, and paying them roundly for the work ; 
then by the rise in values, or '^ unearned increment," 
which comes with population and development ; finally, 
by the premium, or interest, upon capital thus acquired. 
All this was the logical fruit of a policy of continental 
conquest bravely undertaken, magnificently achieved. 

Behold the story of national prosperity in the form of 
a few clear-cut figures, divested of all rhetorical cloth- 
ing : In a little more than one hundred years the area of 
farms increased from sixty-five thousand square miles to 
over one million square miles. The number of persons 

8 



I 



CONTINENTAL CONQUEST 

engaged in the agricnltiiral industry in 1890 was ten 
million seven hundred thousand — more than two and a 
half times the entire population in 1790. In acres the 
total amount of land classed as farms by the last census 
was nearly six hundred million, of which nearly four 
hundred million was under actual cultivation, the rest 
being woodlands. The number of individual farms was 
four million six hundred and fifty thousand. The annual 
product was worth four billion dollars. ^' In ten years," 
says Mr. Andrew Carnegie, in his inspiring book. Tri- 
umphant Democracy ^ *^a territory larger than Britain, and 
almost equal in extent to the entire area of France and 
Germany, was added to the farm area of America." 

Marvellous as this statement is, it exhibits but one 
item in the record of continental conquest which con- 
ferred such phenomenal prosperity upon the American 
people in the past. Agriculture is the basis of civiliza- 
tion, and upon the foundation so quickly and thorough- 
ly laid, the new nation hastened to erect the superstruct- 
ure of a complex industrial life. The existence of an 
enormous population on the farms furnished a great field 
for manufactures. This industry now employs between 
four and five million workmen, who annually receive and 
expend nearly two billion dollars in wages, and create an 
annual product worth nearly nine billion dollars. 

Agriculture and manufactures — both finished products 
wrought by millions of workmen from the raw materials 
of the new continent — combined in demanding the most 
extensive arrangements for internal tj-ansportation ever 
provided on the face of the earth., The total railroad 
mileage at the last census was one hundred and sixty- 
three thousand five hundred miles, which is more tban 

9 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

that of all European countries combined. Of this vast 
mileage almost one-half was built between 1880 and 
1890. When it is remembered that each of these miles 
stands for about fifty thousand dollars expenditure — the 
cost of construction and equipment — and that the work 
employed an army of laborers and skilled artisans, who 
in turn consumed great quantities of agricultural and 
manufactured products, it is not difficult to realize that 
the railroad development contributed largely to the na- 
tional prosperity in the past. It was, of course, the di- 
rect result of the great process of material conquest 
which was going on. 

To the same cause was due the employment of 
nearly three million people in trade and transportation ; 
of nearly five million in professional services, of three- 
quarters of a million in mining. The grand result is 
seen in the fact that the national population grew from 
less than four millions in 1790 to more than sixty-two 
millions in 1890, while the total wealth mounted to the 
incomprehensible sum of sixty-five billion dollars. 

Such are the stupendous results of the labors of a 
great people p«pplied to the resources of a virgin con- 
tinent. Other people have possessed energy and genius, 
and two of the European nations have enjoyed the bless- 
ings of self-government. If republican institutions 
would alone guarantee such results in the future, it is 
hardly to be imagined that the sternest monarchy could 
withstand the demand for their adoption. But the 
transcendent factor in the result was the continental 
expanse of marvellous resources awaiting the labor and 
genius of man. 

Can there be any question that the abounding pros- 

10 



CONTINENTAL CONQUEST 

perity of the American people during the first century 
of their national life was due to this luminous fact ? 
Can there be any reasonable doubt that if the policy of 
material conquest over new areas can find another field 
on which to operate, and that if it be entered upon with 
the old vigor and faith, it will confer another century of 
prosperity upon the nation so fortunately endowed ? 



CHAPTER II 
THE HOME-BUILDING IXSTIXCT OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 

Speaking in broad terms, there have been three great 
eras of colonization in the United States. All of these 
eras have been well defined, intelligible, and erentfiil. 
They peopled successively the Atlantic coast, the rrans- 
Alleghany region from Lakes to Gulf, and the valley of 
the Mississippi. Taken together, they made virtually 
complete the conquest of Eastern America, and in Eastern 
America over ninety per cent, of the national population 
dwells to-day. 

A studv of these historic movements reveals a strikinsr 
fact. It is a fact which throws a Hood of light on the 
American character, explaining much that has occurred 
in the past and furnishing sectire ground upon which 
to base predictions of much that is to happen in the 
future. The American colonist, from Plymouth in 
Massachusetts to Plymouth in Idaho, has fixed his eyes 
on one star, which has shone out serene and steady 
through the clouds of religious persecution, of war, and 
of economic strife. That star stood for home. To build 
a home for himself and his children, to live there at 
peace with his neighbors and tlie world, to make better 
institutions for average humanity — this, when the sub- 
ject is viewed as a whole, is seen to have been the con- 

1? 



THE IIOME-BUILDING INSTINCT 

sistcnt aim of American colonization from the begin- 
ning. 

There are a few exceptions to be noted, bnt they arc 
not of sufficient importance to affect the general result. 
Such exceptions are the settlement of California, and of 
certain localities in the Rocky Mountains, during periods 
of excitement following the discovery of gold. Another 
instance was the settlement of Kansas as a means of 
preserving the equilibrium between the free and the slave 
States. But these are isolated instances, of far more 
moment in an historical than in a numerical sense. The 
settlers of the United States have been moved by very 
different instincts and motives than those which im- 
pelled the Romans, the Normans, and Danes to settle at 
different periods in Britain. The great movements of 
population in the Middle Ages were armed conquests 
for spoils, and power, and martial glory. Those, indeed, 
were the ruling motives among Europeans and Asiatics 
until comparatively recent times. When these motives 
ceased to operate, they were succeeded by another which 
was equally sordid, even if more humaiie. This was tho 
lust for trade or for sudden riches. Tliis it was which 
impelled the settlement of Australasia by tho English, 
of the Spice Islands by the Dutch, of South America by 
the Portuguese, of Cuba by the Spanish, of Africa by all 
of these and by the French and Germans as well. Thus 
the hosts which swarmed out of Europe to make new 
settlements all over the earth were principally marshalled 
under the flag of avarice. It was far different with the 
men who, at various periods during the last three hundred 
years, conquered the soil of the United States and ex- 
tended the frontiers of its civilization. 

t 

13 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

The settlement of the New World was largely inaugu- 
rated by those who fled from religious persecution. But 
it cannot be said on that account that their ruling mo- 
tive was not the desire to enjoy the security of a home. 
Religious sentiment lies very close to the hearth-stone. 
Upon its human side, at least, it has nothing in common 
with politics. Still less is it related to the struggle for 
gain. It was because they could not live at peace in 
Europe, because they could not be certain of life or 
tenancy in any one place, and therefore could not ac- 
cumulate a competence for their children, that the relig- 
ious enthusiasts fled over the sea. The Puritan in Mass- 
achusetts, the Baptist in Rhode Island, the Quaker in 
Pennsylvania, and the Catholic in Maryland, looked less 
passionately upon their spires and crosses than upon the 
babies in their cradles, the vegetables in their gardens, 
and the smoke which curled from their chimneys. 

It is true that there were many fanatics in the sev- 
enteenth and previous centuries to whom religion was 
dearer jthan home; but it was not the axes of these 
fanatics that felled the American forests. Their devoted 
spirits were freed at the stake, or at the block, or their 
poor bodies festered in foul prisons. It was the element 
whose love of home and kindred was too powerful to 
permit them to suffer martyrdom, even though their 
convictions forbade them to eschew their religious prac- 
tices, who inaugurated the first era of colonization on 
these shores. Theirs are the first footprints in our his- 
tory, and they lead straight to the home and the fire- 
side. 

The second real era of colonization came with the 
end of the Revolution. Previous to that event the 

14 



THE IIOME-BUILDING INSTINCT 

trans-Allegliany country was but vaguely known as a 
whole. Daniel Boone had, indeed, built his cabin in the 
wilds of Kentucky, and adventurous spirits had begun 
to follow him from Virginia and the Oarolinas. James 
Kobertson and John Sevier, leading the hardy back- 
woodsmen of the Scotch Presbyterian faith, had begun 
the making of Tennessee. The French Creoles had 
lived for three generations in the slumberous repose of 
widely scattered villages in the Ohio Valley, and had 
gathered in some numbers at New Orleans. But the 
hour for the real movement of population to the west- 
ward of the mountains had not struck. When it did 
strike, it found the home-building instinct of the Amer- 
ican people instantly and passionately responsive to its 
summons. It was the returning veterans from the War 
of Independence who lent the first great impulse to the 
new emigration. Hardened by years of out-door life, 
thoroughly weaned from the atmosphere of the town and 
the shop, finding their places on the farms largely filled 
by boys who, during their absence, had grown to self- 
reliance, if not to manhood, these war-worn veterans 
were not unwilling to transfer their battle-ground from 
the sea-coast to the wilderness, and to fight for homes 
as ardently as they had struggled for political indepen- 
dence. 

During the next thirty years the population of Ken- 
tucky leaped from about seventy thousand to over half a 
million, and that of Tennessee from thirty thousand to 
over four hundred thousand. Ohio, Indiana and Illi- 
nois, which had no place in the census of 1790, were 
credited, respectively, with nearly six hundred thousand, 
one hundred and forty-seven thousand, and fifty-five 

15 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

thousand, in 1820. The movement went on without 
pause until the outbreak of the great rebellion. It was 
even more plainly marked with the home-seeking char- 
acter than the earlier settlement of the seaboard States. 
We need not in this instance seek the home-loving in- 
stinct under the religious motive. The circumstances 
and the methods of the new army of settlers revealed 
the supreme object of their emigration. 

The lands along the coast and in the rich valleys of 
tidal rivers had been well occupied by a people who en- 
joyed substantial prosperity, not only as the reward of 
their industry, but also as the result of their prio4*ity 
of settlement. The country had grown. It was plainly 
upon the verge of a larger and more rapid expansion. 
These circumstances enhanced the value of property 
and laid the foundation of many family fortunes, espe- 
cially where the colonial hamlets had grown to be towns, 
and promised to become populous cities. The early- 
comers and their descendants were being steadily en- 
riched by the "unearned increment. Those who were 
thus established had no occasion to move, but their less 
fortunate neighbors longed for homes of their own, and 
were ready to take quick advantage of the opportunity 
which the war and the Ordinance of 1787 had opened 
for them in the West. These people were almost uni- 
versally poor in a worldly sense, but rich in courage and 
intelligence and full of the spirit of empire-builders. 
They were no more a class of greedy speculators than 
were the pioneers of New England. They emigrated 
in order that they might improve their condition. They 
were home-seekers pure and simple. Placed completely 
beyond the influence of Europe, and acting under a new 

16 



THE IIOME-BUILDING INSTINCT 

spirit of nationality, the people concerned in our second 
era of colonization developed a rugged Americanism be- 
fore unknown. This spirit was typified in the character 
of Abraham Lincoln, who was one of its products. 

The third era of colonization followed the War of tho 
Eebellion, as the second had followed the War of the Revo- 
lution, and largely for the same reason. The cessation 
of hostilities and the disbandment of the armies turned 
back into the paths of peace hundreds of thousands of 
veterans. They were filled with an over-mastering desire 
for homes. They longed for a chance to work for them- 
selves, as their fathers and forefathers had done. Uncle 
Sam was still proprietor of a vast estate of virgin and 
fertile soil. The homestead law beckoned to the return- 
ing hosts like the linger of fate. The result was the 
phenomenal settlement of the Upper Mississippi Valley 
and the creation of States where the old soldier reigned 
all but supreme. In a period of twenty years after the 
war Nebraska jumped from a population of twenty-eight 
thousand to nearly half a million ; Kansas from one 
hundred thousand to a round million; Iowa from six 
hnndrod thousand to a million and six hundred thousand; 
Dakota from five thousand to one hundred and forty 
thousand, while Minnesota also added more than half a 
million to her total. 

The movement never paused until it encountered an 
obstacle beyond the power of the individual settler to 
overcome. This obstacle was aridity — the failure of 
rainfall to meet the demands of agriculture. The im- 
petus of the movement carried its vanguard across the 
danger-line and into the territory where existence could 
not be maintained without resource to methods then lit- 
B 17 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

tie understood, and indeed not fully developed. Upon 
this strange boundary of prosperity, which nature had 
marked with indelible lines, the hosts engaged in the 
third colonization era trembled and hesitated for several 
years, then fell back baffled and disappointed. 

The first act in the drama of American settlement 
ended in the eastern foothills of the Alleghany moun- 
tains about 1770 ; the second, in the neighborhood of 
the Mississippi river about 1860 ; the third, midway 
on the plains of Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas 
about 1890. For each of these historic periods we 
might find a fit and speaking emblem in its character- 
istic means of transportation. The emblem of the first 
would be the little Ifayflozuer, tossing on the billows of 
the Atlantic ; that of the second, the heavily laden pack- 
horse, threading his tortuous way through the tangle of 
the untrodden forest; that of the third, the prairie 
schooner, steering for the setting sun across the trackless 
sea of the plains. 

The wonderful drama of American colonization has re- 
served a fourth and crowning act, for which the scenery 
is arranged and the actors ready. 



CHAPTER III 
THE BETTER HALF OF THE UNITED STATES . 

The ninety-seventh meridian divides the United States 
almost exactly into halves. East of that line dwell sixty- 
four million people. Here are overgrown cities and 
over-crowded industries. Here is surplus capital, as idle 
and burdensome as the surplus population. West of that 
line dwell four or five millions — less than the population 
of Pennsylvania, and scarcely more than that of Greater 
New York. And yet the vast territory to the AVest — so 
little known, so lightly esteemed, so sparsely peopled — ■ 
is distinctly the better half of the United States. 

The West and East are different sections, not merely 
in name and geographical location, but in physical en- 
dowments and fundamental elements of economic life, 
i Nature wrote upon them, in her own indelible charac- 
I ters, the story of their wide contrasts and the prophecy 
of their varying civilizations. To the one were given the 
I advantages of earlier development, but for the other were 
j reserved the opportunities of a riper time. It was the 
I destiny of the one to blossom and fruit in an epoch dis- 
( tinguished for the accumulation of wealth, with its vast 
j possibilities of evil and of good. It was the destiny of 
I the other to lie fallow until humanity should feel a 
nobler impulse ; then to nurse, in the shadow of its ever- 

19 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AxMERICA 

lasting mountains and the warmth of its unfailing sun- 
shine, new dreams of liberty and equality for men. 

That this is not the popular conception of the mission 
of the Far West may be frankly acknowledged. The 
region is little known to the great middle - classes in 
American life. It has been demonstrated by actual stat- 
istics that only three per cent, of our people travel more 
than fifty miles from their homes in the course of a year. 
Those who make extended pleasure tours gravitate not 
unnaturally to Europe,, drawn by the fascination of 
quaint foreign scenes and the fame of historic places. 
But the comparatively few whose business or fancy has 
taken them across the continent fail, as a rule, to grasp 
the true significance of the wide empire which stretches 
from the middle of the great plxiins to the shores of the 
Western sea. 

It is a common human instinct to regard unfamiliar 
conditions with distrust. The first settlers in Iowa en- 
gaged in desperate rivalry for possession of the wooded 
lands, thinking that no soil was fit for agricultural pur- 
poses unless it furnished the pioneer an opportunity to 
cut down trees and pull up stumps. *'Land that won't 
grow trees won't grow anything," was the maxim of the 
knowing ones. Their fathers had cleared the forests on 
the slopes of the AUeghanies to make way for the plough 
and the field, and the new generation could not conceive 
that land which bore rich crops of wild grasses and lay 
plastic and level for the husbandman to begin his labors, 
could have any value. A great deal of hard work was 
wasted before it was discovered that nature had provided 
new and superior conditions in the land beyond the 
Mississippi. 

20 



BETTER HALF OF THE UNITED STATES 

So it generally happens that the casual Western trav- 
eller, looking at the country from car-windows in the in- 
tervals between his daily paper, brings back more con- 
tempt than admiration for the economic possibilities of 
the country. One must live in the Far West to begin 
to comprehend it. Xot only so, but he must come with 
eager eyes from an older civilization, and he must study 
the beginnings of industrial and social institutions 
throughout the region as a whole, to have any adequate 
appreciation of the real potentialities of that half of the 
United States which has been reserved for the theatre of 
twentieth-century developments. To all other observers 
the new West is a sealed book. 

The West is divided from the East by a boundary-line 
which is not imaginary. It is a plain mark on the face 
of the earth, and no man made it. It is the place where 
the re<rion of assured rainfall ends and the arid resrion 
begins. There have formerly been some costly doubts 
about the precise location of this line, but these have 
been dispelled by experience, and the lesson learned in 
hardship and impressed by disaster is learned for all 
time. The momentous boundary - line is that of the 
ninety-seventh meridian, which cleaves in twain the 
Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. East 
of this line there is a rainfall which is accepted as re- 
liable, though there are alternate disasters of drought 
and flood, varying in their effects from short crops to 
total failures. 

Even in humid regions nothing is so uncertain as the 
time and amount of the rainfall. In the whole ranfre of 
modern industry nothing is so crude, uncalculating, and 
unscientific as the childlike dependence on the mood of 

21* 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

the clouds for the moisture essential to the production 
of the staple necessities of life. 

The distinguishing characteristic of the vast region 
west of the ninety-seventh meridian is, then, its aridity — 
the lack of rainfall sufficient to insure the success of 
agriculture. The new empire includes, in whole or in 
part, seventeen States ancl Territories. It is a region of 
magnificent dimensions. From north to south it meas- 
ures as far as from Montreal to Mobile. From east to 
west the distance is greater than from Boston to Omaha. 
Within these wide boundaries there are great diversities of 
climate and soil, of altitude and other physical conditions. 

The arid region was the latest acquisition of national 
territory, except Alaska, until the late war with Spain. 
It was unknown and undisputed as late as the Revolu- 
tion. It was the fruit of James Monroe's negotiations 
with Napoleon I., resulting in the Louisiana purchase ; of 
the forcible conquest from Mexico ; of the annexation of 
Texas, and of the Gadsden purchase in 1853. Unlike 
the rich and well-watered lands in the valley and around 
the mouth of the Mississippi, the acquisition of the arid 
region was not compelled by the irresistible pressure of 
the frontiersmen. It came as a perquisite with the pur- 
chase of Louisiana, and as a concession to manifest des- 
tiny. Between the day of its acquisition by the United 
States and the dawn of its peculiar and enduring civili- 
zation, the country was destined to pass through three 
distinct eras. The first was that of the hunter and 
trapper ; the second, that of the cowboy and the rude 
miner ; the third, that of the railroad, the land-boomer, 
and the speculative farmer, with mining reduced to a 
stable industry. 

9.9. 



BETTER HALF OF THE UNITED STATES 

The first exploration of the strange new land of the 
mysterious West owed its initiative to the pnblic spirit 
of President Jefferson. He had, indeed, but the vaguest 
conception of the possible utility of the country, and 
realized that its development would come long after he 
should have passed from the stage of events. But ho 
was a patron of science, and felt, moreover, a patriotic 
curiosity to learn what sort of a property the nation had 
acquired. Congress cheerfully authorized the expedition 
which Jefferson proposed. The result was the journey 
of the famous explorers Lewis and Clark, begun in 
May, 1804. Starting from St. Louis, they ascended the 
Missouri river to its sources, crossed the Rocky Moun- 
tains in Montana, and followed the Columbia river to its 
outlet in the Pacific Ocean. When they returned and 
presented their report, the public obtained its first glim- 
mering of knowledge concerning the geology, climate, 
and animal and human life of the Far West. The subject 
was then one of remote interest to the nation, which had 
scarcely acquired its foothold, through actual settlement, 
on the northwestern Territories between the Alleghanies 
and the Mississippi. 

The second notable explorations were those of Zebulon 
Pike, which developed a superficial knowledge of Colo- 
rado and Mexico. Then came Bonneville, Fremont, and 
their contemporaries and successors, with adventurous 
settlers and hardy gold-hunters treading close upon their 
heek, and effecting little substantial development for 
decades. Francis Parkman, fresh from college, roamed 
through the country as far as the Black Hills and old Fort 
Laramie in 1847-8, and left a lively account of the savage 
wilderness in The Oregon Trail. 

23 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Thus gradually, and attended by many misrepresenta- 
tions and strange misconceptions, which inevitably scat- 
tered wide the seeds of prejudice, the arid region emerged 
from absolute obscurity and stood partially revealed to 
men. It was not, however, until a few pioneer settle- 
ments had demonstrated undreamed-of results, nor until 
Major John W. Powell, by utterances as daring as his 
explorations, had furnished a scientific basis for a brood 
of new hopes, that the real character of Arid America 
began to glow, like the belated sun through a morning 
fog, upon the popular imagination. 

The superiority of the western half-continent over its 
eastern counterpart may not be expressed in a word. It 
is, rather, a matter for patient unfolding through a study 
of natural conditions over wide areas, and a scrutiny of 
the human institutions which are the inevitable product 
of this environment. Aridity, in the elementary sense, 
is purely an affair of climate. That it is also the germ of 
new industrial and social systems, with far-reaching 
possibilities in the fields of ethics and politics, will be 
demonstrated further on in these pages. But the first 
item of importance in the assets of the new West is 
climate. 

When an inhabitant of the Atlantic seaboard, or of 
the shores of the Great Lakes, or of the lowlands of the 
South, can no longer withstand the penetration of cold, 
damp winds, or the malarious breath of swamps, his 
family physician sends him to the arid West. Through- 
out its length and breadth it is one vast sanitarium. 
Its pure, sweet air and sunny skies are instinct witii the 
breath of life. They put new heart into the drooping 
invalid, prolonging his life, and, if he be not too far 

24 







c E 

^ t 

S - 

< — 



O c 



BETTER HALF OF THE UNITED STATES 

gone at the ontset, restoring the old rigor to the shat- 
tered bodv. The faces of the permanent sojourners 
within their influence they paint with the brown bad^ 
of health. It is too early as yet to observe the full effect 
of the climate on the population of the arid West, but 
sufficient results are apparent to warrant the assertion 
that these influences will breed a great race. 

The element of aridity not only fosters health, but' 
moderates and makes more readily bearable the sum- 
mer's heat and winters cold. It is the damp cold that 
penetrates to the marrow. It is the humid heat that 
prostrates. To say that a cold of thirty degrees below- 
zero at Helena, in Montana, is felt less than ten degrees 
above zero in Chicago or Xew York ; or to say°that 
eighty-five degrees above zero in the East is more dan- 
1 gerous to the laborer than one hundred and fifteen de- 
( grees at Indio, in the Colorado desert, is to put a severe 
:ai on popular credulity. Xevertheless, both state- 
Ij ments are literally true, as ^ who have experienced the 

[conditions testify. 
Science corroborates the story. The United States 
Weather Bureau has perfected in recent years an in- 
^ strument to measure the difference between apparent 
I and sensible temperature, which is determined bv hu- 
midity, or lack of it. The instrument, which consists 
j of a dry and of a wet thermometer, has been in opera- 
! tion at Yuma, in southwestern Arizona, since ISSS. 3Ir. 
\i A. Ashenberger, the official observer, reports that the 
I hottest day in that period was July 20, 1892. On that day 
Ij the dry thermometer registered one hundred and four- 
1 teen degrees of apparent heat, and the wet thermometer 
• sixty-nine degrees of sensible heat— a difference of forty- 

25 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

three degrees. The scientific findings are borne out by 
the every -day testimony of individuals. Sun-strokes in 
the arid region are practically unknown. The rainless air 
that sweeps over the arid lands of western America is 
necessarily dry. It neither breeds diseases nor carries 
their germs. It is the very breath of health. The lack 
of moisture, combined with the configuration, forbids 
the presence of tornadoes, and the Weather Bureau has 
absolutely no record of such a calamity west of the 
ninety-seventh meridian. 

The superior climate of the arid West is due to funda- 
mental conditions which differ widely from those of east- 
ern America. Viewed from the stand-point of the broader 
climatic effects, the eastern half of the United States is 
one wide plain. The moisture-laden winds from lakes 
and gulf, as from the great ocean itself, meet none but 
insignificant barriers. But in the Far West the moun- 
tains are the supreme factor in the making of the cli- 
mate. The coast range stands eternal guard along the 
margin of the sea, while a little farther inland the Sierra 
Nevada lifts its giant peaks to intercept the clouds which 
escape the outer barrier and to condense their moisture 
into snow. Down the centre of the continent, from 
Canada to Mexico, the Rocky Mountains tower far into 
the sky, repeating upon the eastern edge of the arid 
region the process of condensing and storing the winter's 
rain and holding it against the summer's need. Between 
the three great primary ranges scores of shorter ones, or 
isolated mountain groups, reach their long arms into the 
desert. The dryness, purity, and lightness of the at- 
mosphere are due to this mountain topography, and to 
the high average altitude throughout the region. It is, 

26 



BETTER HALF OF THE UNITED STATES 

then, in the striking character of its climate, springing 
from these fixed and fundamental conditions, that the 
great West scores its first superiority over the well-settled 
states east of the Mississippi river. 

But the nation's sanitarium is also the nation's treas- 
ure-house. Without the store of precious metals which 
sleeps in the bosom of the western mountains the Ameri- 
can people would be practically dependent on foreign 
lands for their supply of gold and silver. From this 
pitiable plight the nation was saved by the wise states- 
manship and the great good fortune which brought into 
the Union the States of Colorado, Utah, and California, 
of Idaho, Montana, and Nevada, of Washington, Oregon, 
and Wyoming, and the Territories of New Mexico and 
Arizona. European nations testify their appreciation 
of such resources by struggling for the possession of 
South Africa, a mineral field scarcely worthy to be 
mentioned in comparison with that of our own great 
West. 

The western half-continent is rich not merely in the 
precious metals, but in all the raw materials of economic 
greatness. Its supreme advantage consists in the ex- 
I traordinary diversity of its resources. In sketching the 
peculiarities of the several Western States, further on in 
these pages, the facts will be stated with more detail. In 
directing attention to the general superiority of these 
States over their sisters of the East, it is sufficient now to 
say that they have more water-power than New England ; 
more coal, iron, and oil than Pennsylvania ; larger and 
better forests than Maine and Michigan ; and produce 
better wheat and corn than Illinois and Indiana. The 
time is rapidly coming when they will produce more and 

27 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

better sugar than Louisiana, and will revolutionize the 
tanning industry by supplanting oak and hemlock bark 
with canaigrc. With beef and mutton, wool and hides, 
they already feed and clothe the East. They have finer 
harbors than Boston and New York, and a sea-coast 
which faces a greater foreign world. 

There is no Eastern State that compares with almost 
any one of these giant commonwealths of the compara- 
tively unknown AVest in anything save present develop- 
ment, which includes, of course, population, wealth, and 
political influence. So emphatic and unmistakable is the 
superiority with which nature endowed the Far AVest 
that it may be said in all seriousness that if the Pilgrim 
Fathers had landed at San Diego rather than at Ply- 
mouth, that half of the country which now contains over 
ninety per cent, of the total population would be regarded 
as comparatively worthless. It would have been difficult 
to settle it to the best advantage. To illustrate : imagine 
the excitement which would occur if the people of New 
England should awaken some morning to find themselves 
in possession of the climate and diversified resources of 
Colorado, AVashington, or California ! Even the sane 
brain which rules the land of steady habits would grow 
dizzy in the presence of such vast possibilities. And yet 
Colorado, AVashington, and California represent but a 
small proportion of the country which rests under the 
wide arch of our western sky. 

In briefly reviewing the salient points of difference be- 
tween the old section and the new, the feature which 
constitutes at once the most characteristic and the most 
fundamental advantage of the AVest has been left for 
separate treatment. Not until this feature has been con- 

28 



BETTEU HALF OF THE UNITED STATES 

eidcrcd is it possible to appreciate the striking character 
of tlie hew civilization which will rule the destinies of 
tlie western half of the continent, and, very probably, 
project new and potent influences into the social and 
political life of the United States as a whole. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE BLESSINQ OE ARIDITY 

Fortunate beyond all other parts of the United States 
in its climate and in the surpassing wealth of its forests, 
its quarries and its mines, western America is yet more 
favored in another element of its physical foundation. 
This is the substantial aridity which prevails throughout 
its vast proportions. 

The anomaly that its foremost blessing should consist 
in the fact which gave it a wide-spread reputation for 
worthlessness is interesting, but unimportant. Nature 
frequently conceals her raw materials of greatness, alike 
in men and in countries, until time and opportunity are 
ripe. In the aridity of the West we shall find the true 
key to its future institutions. Climate may produce a 
healthy race, and mineral resources may enrich it, but 
the natural conditions which determine the character of 
social and industrial organization, and mould the habits 
and customs of men, are the potent influences whicli 
shape civilization. Hence we shall see that in any just 
estimate of the relative worth of western resources the 
fact of aridity must be rated as high above the value 
of forests and mines as human progress is dearer than 
money, and as the fate of the race is more momentous 
than the prosperity of individuals. 



THE BLESSING OF ARIDITY 

The influence of the new environment may readily be 
illustrated by comparing the conditions which confronted 
the early settlers of the New England forests and the Illi- 
uois prairie, on one hand, and, upon the other, those 
which the settler met in the deserts around Salt Lake. 
Except for the temporary need of defence against the 
Indians, eastern settlers were able to locate their homes 
without reference to neighbors. They cleared the forest 
or turned the prairie sod, and were ready to begin. 
They generally took all the land they could claim under 
the law, and held much of it out of use for speculation. 
The greed for land resulted in large farms, and this in- 
volved social isolation. The individual acted alone and 
exclusively for his own benefit. The conditions not only 
favored, but practically compelled it. Out of this primal 
germ of our eastern citizenship grew the plant of indi- 
vidual enterprise, which is the conspicuous product of 
the time. The fruit which it bore was competition, and 
this has latterly tended towards monopoly. 

The conditions which confronted the settler in the 
deserts of Utah were widely different. There he could 
not build his home and make his living regardless of his 
neighbor. Without water to irrigate the rich but arid 
soil he could not raise a spear of grass nor an ear of 
corn. Water for irrigation could only be obtained by 
turning the course of a stream and building canals which 
must sometimes be cut into the solid walls of the canyon 
or conducted across chasms in flumes. All this lay be- 
yond the reach of the individual. Thus it was found 
that the association and organization of men were the 
price of life and prosperity in the arid West. The alter- 
native was starvation. The plant which grew from this 

31 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

new seed was associative enterprise, and we shall pres- 
ently see wliat flower it bore in Utah and other States of 
the arid region. But it is interesting to first observe 
that we have encountered in these underlying conditions 
of the western half-continent principles that are as old 
as history and as wide as humanity. 

The founders of the wonderful civilization of the 
Netherlands were compelled to deal with conditions 
which brought into action the same forces as those 
which are working out interesting results in the arid 
region of the United States. The Dutch combined and 
organized their efforts in order to keep the water off 
their lands, as the Westerners combine and organize to 
bring the water on. Writing of this aspect of his sub- 
ject in that enlightening book, TJie Puritan in Holland, 
England, and America, Mr. Douglass Campbell says : 

" The constant struggle for existence, as in all cases 
when the rewards are great enough to raise men above 
biting, sordid penury, strengthens the whole race, men- 
tally, morally, and physically. Lalor here has never leen 
selfish and individual. To be effective, it requires organ- 
izatio7i and direction. Men learn to work in a body and 
under leaders. A single man laboring on a dike would 
accomplish nothing ; the whole population must turn 
out and act together." 

Even more interesting and significant is Mr. Campbell's 
statement of the far-reaching influence, upon the whole 
economic fabric of the nation, of the co-operative meth- 
ods taught the founders of Holland by the necessities of 
their situation and transmitted to their descendants. He 



says : 

?ho habits thus engend 

32 



^'Tho habits thus engendered extend in all directions. 



THE BLESSING OF ARIDITY 

Everything is done in corporations" [co-operations ?]. 
"Each trade has its guild, elects its own officers, and 
manages its own affairs. The people are a vast civic 
army, subdivided into brigades, regiments, and com- 
panies, all accustomed to discipline, learning the first 
great lesson of life — obedience." 

Professor E. W. Ililgard, the distinguished director of 
the agricultural department of the University of Cali- 
fornia, has brought this line of reasoning from physical 
causes to industrial effects into direct application to our 
subject. In a notable contribution to the Popular 
Science Monthly he says : 

"As irrigation means heavy investments of capital or 
labor, hence the co-operation of many and the construc- 
tion of permanent works: it necessarily implies the cor- 
relative existence of a stable social organization, with 
protection for property rights, and (in view of tlie 
complexity of the problem of proper and equitable dis- 
tribution of water) a rather advanced appreciation of 
the need and advantages of co-operative organization." 

It was in the course of an effort to account for the 
singular preference of the founders of the most ancient 
civilizations for arid lands, rather than for the forested 
areas Avhich have been the scenes of later development, 
that Professor Ililgard made this expression of the 
obvious effects of irrigation on industrial polity. A 
little further on we shall sec other interesting results of 
his inquiry in this field. 

The quality of aridity is thus the most significant 
among many striking contrasts which mark the western 
half of the United States — the field for future settle- 
ment and development — as fundamentally different 
c 33 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

from the eastern half. Its relation to agriculture is im- 
portant and interesting, but its relation to a future civil- 
ization in a broader sense will be momentous. It is, 
indeed, a fateful crop, trembling with the hopes of hu- 
manity, that is beginning to sprout from the arid soil of 
the far-western deserts. 

The blessing of aridity is again conspicuously illus- 
trated in its remarkable effect upon the soil. The land 
which the casual traveller, speaking out of the splendid 
depths of his ignorance and prejudice, condemns as 
"worthless^' and fit only "to hold the earth together," 
is in reality rich and durable beyond the most favored 
districts in the humid regions. It is the marvel of every 
eastern farmer who comes in contact with it. Professor 
Hilgard sees in this phenomenal fertility the most rea- 
sonable explanation of the choice of arid lands by the 
people foremost in ancient civilization. 

It has puzzled the historian to account for the fact 
that the glories of antiquity sprang from the heart of 
the desert. The fact itself is, of course, beyond dispute. 
Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, with Palestine, "the land 
of milk and honey" ; Persia, Arabia, and the classic lands 
of northern India, as w^ell as the countries of the Car- 
thaginians and the Moors, were arid regions. So also 
were the chosen homes of the Incas in South America, 
and of the Aztecs and Toltecs in Mexico and our own 
Southwest, the fame of whose vanished civilizations is 
reflected in the pages of Prescott and Baldwin. Por 
aught we know to the contrary, these departed nations 
may have been perfect types of the co-operative com- 
monwealth, and the knack of governing them for the 
equal benefit of all may be the most precious of the lost 

34 



TUE BLESSING OF ARIDITY 

arts. Among the silent witnesses which have survived 
the centuries to testify to the engineering skill and 
the perfection of social organization of those who were 
swept into oblivion by nameless calamities, are great 
irrigation canals, portions of which are even yet so true 
and substantial as to serve the uses of to-day in con- 
junction with modern works. There are such instances 
in Arizona. 

The accepted explanation of the choice of the arid 
land by the ancient races is that they sought security 
against savage enemies, both animal and human, which 
infested the forest. The theory is purely sentimental 
and quite inconsistent with the slight but conclusive 
evidences of their superior intelligence and courage 
which yet survive. The reasonable explanation of the 
mystery of ancient civilization is that the arid lands 
were chosen because they were infinitely better than the 
humid lands, and because they presented conditions 
much better suited to the industrial polity of the people 
and the age. 

In searching for the clue of this mystery Professor 
Hilgard has developed facts which tend to upset other 
accepted theories. It has long been conceded that cer- 
tain arid districts are the richest spots on the surface of 
the globe. ''The valley of the Nile," for instance, is a 
phrase which is everywhere taken as a synonym of ex- 
traordinary fertility. The richness and durability of 
the Nile lands, which have supported for centuries an 
average population of little more than one and one-half 
persons to each acre of cultivated soil (a density of set- 
tlement which would give Texas a population of over 
one hundred and sixty millions), has been ascribed to 

35 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

the fertilizing quality of the annual deposit of river sedi- 
ment. The partisans of irrigation have made much of 
this aspect of the matter, asserting that the artificial 
application of water is itself a means of fertilization. 
They have asserted the claim not only where the source 
of supply, as in the cases of the Rio Grande and the Rio 
Colorado, is obviously heavily charged with silt held 
in suspension, but with almost equal ardor in cases 
where the water flows, a stream of limpid crystal, di- 
rectly from the mountain-side, or gushes impetuously 
from the earth in artesian outpourings. 

That the famous river Nile does, indeed, leave a thin 
deposit of rich soil upon each subsidence of its annual 
flood our California scientist does not, of course, deny. 
He proves, however, that this layer of new soil is only of 
the thickness of common cardboard — one-twenty-fifth of 
an inch — and is equal to only about two good two-horse 
loads per acre. Three times as much stable manure is 
the usual dressing for an acre. He truly observes that 
as the sediment is merely rich soil, thousands of farmers 
could readily haul and spread such fertilizer upon their 
land, and would doubtless do so if they could thereby 
duplicate the phenomenal fertility of the Nile country. 
He clinches his argument by showing that the neighbor- 
ing province of Fayoom, in the Libyan Desert, shares 
the perpetual fertility of the Nile district, though irri- 
gated only with the clear waters of Lake Moeris; that 
the regur lands of the Deccan, in south-central In- 
dia, have been phenomenally productive for thousands 
of years, and that the loess region of China, drained 
by tlie headwaters of the Yellow river, have been the 
granary of China for ages. Like the famous Egyptian 



THE BLESSING OF ARIDITY 

provinces, the lands referred to in India and Cliina are 
arid or semi-arid, and, unlike the Nile Valley, they have 
not been enriched by ^edimentry deposits or fertilized 
by irrigation. 

Hence, Professor Ililgard reaches the somewhat sensa- 
tional conclusion that the extraordinary fertility which, 
by world-wide acknowledgment, marks the valley of the 
Nile, is a qitality inherent in aridity itself. And he main- 
tains his contention thus : 

*' Soils are formed from rocks by the physical and 
chemical agencies commonly comprehended in the term 
weathering, which includes botli their pulverization and 
chemical decomposition by atmospheric action. Both 
actions, but more especially the chemical one, continue 
in the soil itself; the last named in an accelerated meas- 
ure, so as to give rise to the farmer's practice of ' fallow- 
ing' — that is, leaving the land ex2)osed to the action of 
the air in a well-tilled but unplanted condition, with a 
view to increasing the succeeding year's cro]^ by the ad- 
ditional amount of plant-food rendered available, during 
the fallow, from the soil itself. 

"This weathering process is accompanied by the 
formation of new compounds out of the minerals origin- 
ally composing the rock. Some of these, such as zeolites 
and clay, are insoluble in water, and therefore remain in 
the soil, forming a reserve of plant-food that may be 
drawn upon gradually by plants ; while another portion, 
containing especially the compounds of the alkalies — pot- 
ash and soda — are easily soluble in water. AVhere the 
rainfall is abundant these soluble substances are current- 
ly carried into the country drainage, and through the 
rivers into the ocean. Among these are potash, lime, 

37 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

magnesia, siilplmric and a trifle of phosphoric acids. 
Where, on the contrary, the rainfall is insufficient to 
carry the soluble com2:)ounds formed in the weathering 
of the soil-mass into the country drainage, those com- 
pounds must of necessity remain and accumulate in the 
soil." 

All this is perfectly comprehensible, even to the lay 
mind. The valuable ingredients of the soil which are 
soluble have been washed out of the land in humid re- 
gions, like our eastern States, by the rains of centuries. 
On the other hand, these elements have been accumu- 
lating in the arid soil of the West during the same cen- 
turies. They lie there now like an inexhaustible bank 
account on which the plant-life of the future may draw 
at will without danger of protest. The process which 
created this rich soil goes on repeating itself — recreating 
the soil season after season. The same is true, of course, 
in the arid and semi-arid regions of Egypt, India, China, 
and all other localities that enjoy the i-nestimable bless- 
ing of aridity. 

Professor Hilgard's conclusions are the result of pa- 
tient investigation. They are based on more than one 
thousand analyses of the soils of the arid and the hu- 
mid regions of the United "States — of the West and the 
East. These analyses demonstrated the following as- 
tounding fact : That the soils of the arid regions lying 
west of the one hundredth meridian, when compared 
with the soils of the humid region lying east of the 
Mississippi river, contain on the average three times as 
much potash, six times as much magnesia, and fourteen 
times as much lime. This is the scientific explanation 
of the superior productiveness of the arid regions of the 

38 



THE J3LESS1NG OF AllIDlTi' 

West, which every intelligent observer has noted and 
marvelled to behold. 

The people of the Blue Grass Region of Kentucky 
and of other favored localities have repeated from gen- 
eration to generation tbe boast that *' a limestone coun- 
try is always a rich country." Professor Hilgard has 
demonstrated that the average arid soil is equal to the 
most phenomenal soil of the East, while the soil of the 
arid West as a whole is beyond comparison with that 
of the humid East as a whole. He coins the maxim, 
*'Arid countries are always rich countries when irri- 
gated," and the phrase does scant justice to the subject. 
It only remains to add that Professor Hilgard is recog- 
nized as the foremost expert on soils in the AYest, and 
one of the first men in his profession in the United 
States. ISTo one will question the weight of his views, 
for they coincide alike with common-sense and with 
world-wide experience through the centuries. It cannot, 
therefore, be doubted that the agricultural foundation 
of the Far West, as it relates to the soil, is incompar- 
ably better than any other part of the continent. 

While science has thus furnished a lucid explanation 
of the universal fertility of arid lands, it would be un- 
fair to draw the conclusion that the claims which have 
been made concerning the rare fertilizing qualities of 
certain western rivers are entirely unfounded. Nearly 
all of the rivers in the West carry more or less rich silt, 
due to the fact that they flow through treeless regions, 
where the soil is swept into the stream by winds and 
sudden torrents. Eastern rivers are, as a rule, much 
clearer, because they flow through forests and cultivated 
fields. Tlic waters of the Colorado river gather an 

39 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

enormous quantity of fertilizing matter in tlieir long 
journey from the mountains of Wyoming to the Gulf of 
California. There is no guesswork in this instance. 
The scientific men of the University of Arizona, at Tuc- 
son, have made patient ex23eriments, extending over 
many months of time, to determine the actual commer- 
cial value ofthe fertilizer contained in these waters and 
precipitated on the land in the process of irrigation. 
Basing their computation upon the use of thirty-six 
acre-inches of this water, they find that the fertilizing 
material so applied would cost, if purchased in the mar- 
ket, the sum of nine dollars and seven cents j)er acre. 
AVhere such conditions prevail cultivation can never im- 
poverish, but actually enriches, the fortunate soil. But 
we have yet to mention the chief blessing of aridity. 
This is the fact that it compels the use of irrigation, 
. And irrigation is a miracle ! 



CHAPTER V 
THE MIRACLE OF IJlIlIGATrO:N" 

The beauty of Damascus is the tlieme of poets. Speak- 
ing of this ancient capital an anonymous writer remarks 
that ^*the cause of its importance as a city in all the ages 
is easily seen as you approach it from the south. Miles 
before you see the mosques of the modern city the foun- 
tains of a copious and perennial stream spring from among 
the rocks and brushwood at the base of the Anti-Leba- 
non, creating a wide area about them, rich with prolific 
vegetation." He continues : 

''These are the 'streams of Lebanon,' which are poeti- 
cally spoken of in the Songs of Solomon, and the 'rivers 
of Damascus,' whicli Naaman, not unnaturally, preferred 
to all the 'waters of Israel.' This stream, with its many 
branches, is the inestimable treasure of Damascus. Wliile 
the desert is a fortification round Damascus, the river, 
where the habitations of men must always have been 
gathered, as along the Nile, is its life. 

"The city, which is situated in a wilderness of gardens 
of flowers and fruits, has rushing through its streets the 
limpid and refreshing current ; nearly every dwelling has 
its fountain, and at night the lights are seen flashing on 
the waters that dash along from their mountain home. 
As you first view the city from one of the overhanging 

41 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ridges you are prepared to excuse the Mohammedans for 
calling it the earthly paradise. Around, the marble 
minarets, the glittering domes, and the white buildings, 
shining with ivory softness, a maze of bloom and fruit- 
age — where olive and pomegranate, orange and apricot, 
plum and walnut, mingle their varied tints of green — is 
presented to the sight, in striking contrast to the miles 
of barren desert over which you have just ridden/' 

This is the miracle of irrigation in the Syrian desert. 
It is no more miraculous in that far-eastern country than 
in our own West. Nor is Damascus more beautiful than 
Denver, Salt Lake Cit}^ or than any one of a score of 
modern towns in California. But because Damascus is 
ancient and historic, and looks down on mankind from 
the biblical past, it possesses a degree of interest with 
which it is difficult to invest much better and niore im- 
portant places of our own country and our own time. It 
is well, then, to remember that not only the beauty of 
Damascus, but the glories of the Garden of Eden itself, 
were products of irrigation. " A river went out of Eden 
to water the Garden," says the Bible story. 

No consideration of the subject can be appreciative 
when it starts with the narrow view that irrigation is 
merely an adjunct to agriculture. It is a social and in- 
dustrial factor, in a much broader sense. It not only 
makes it possible for a civilization to rise and flourish in 
the midst of desolate wastes; it shapes and colors that 
civilization after its own peculiar design. It is not 
merely the life-blood of the field, but the source of in- 
stitutions. These wider and more subtle influences are 
difficult to define in abstract terms, but we may trace 
them clearly through the history of various commu- 

42 



THE MIRACLE OF IRRIGATION 

nifcies which have grown up in conformity with these 
conditions. 

The essence of the industrial life which springs from 
irrigation is its democracy. The first great law which 
irrigation lays down is this : There shall be no monopoly 
of land. This edict it enforces by the remorseless opera- 
tion of its own economy. Canals must be built before 
water can be conducted upon the land. This entails ex- 
pense, eitlicr of money or of labor. What is expensive 
cannot be had for naught. AVhere water is the founda- 
tion of prosperity it becomes a precious thing, to be 
neitlier cheaply acquired not wantonly wasted. Like a 
city's provisions in a siege, it is a thing to be carefully 
husbanded, to be fairly distributed according to men's 
needs, to be wisely expended by those who receive it. 
For these reasons men cannot acquire as much irrigated 
land, even from the public domain, as they could acquire 
where irrigation was unnecessary. It is not only more 
diflicult to acquire in large bodies, but yet more difficult 
to retain. A large farm under irrigation is a misfortune; 
a great farm, a calamity. Only the small farm pays. 
But this small farm blesses its proprietor with industrial 
independence and crowns him with social equality. That 
is democracy. 

Industrial independence is, in simplest terms, the guar- 
antee of subsistence from one's own labors. It is the 
ability to earn a living under conditions which admit of 
the smallest possible element of doubt witli the least 
possible dependence upon others. Irrigation fully satis- 
fies this definition. 

The canal is an insurance policy against loss of crops 
by drought, while aridity is a substantial guarantee 

43 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

againsfc injury by flood. Of all the advantages of irriga- 
tion, tliis is the most obvious. Scarcely less so, how- 
ever, is its compelling power in the matter of produc- 
tion. Probably there is no spot of land in the United 
States where the average crop raised by dependence upon 
rainfall might not be doubled by intelligent irrigation. 
The rich soils of the arid region produce from four to 
ten times as largely with irrigation as the soil of the 
humid region without it. As the measure of value is 
not area, but productive capacity, twenty acres in the Far 
West should equal one hundred acres elsewhere. Such 
is the actual fact. 

A little further on we shall see that not merely the 
quantity of crops, but their quality as well, responds to 
the influence of irrigation. We shall see how this art 
favors the production of the wide diversity of products 
required for a generous living. Certaint}^, abundance, 
variety — all this upon an area so small as to be within 
the control of a single family through its own labor — 
are the elements which compose industrial independence 
under irrigation. The conditions which prevail where 
irrigation is not necessary — large farms, hired labor, a 
strong tendency to the single crop — are here reversed. 
Intensive cultivation and diversified production are in- 
separably related to irrigation. These constitute a sys- 
tem of industry the fruit of which is a class of small 
landed proprietors resting upon a foundation of eco- 
nomic independence. 

This is the miracle of irrigation on its industrial side. 

As a factor in the social life of the civilization it cre- 
ates, irrigation is no less influential and beneficent. 
Compared with the familiar conditions of country life 

44 



THE MIRACLE OF IRRIGATION 

which we have known in the East and central West, the 
change which irrigation brings amounts to a revolution. 
The bane of rural life is its loneliness. Even food, 
shelter, and provision for old age do not furnish protec- 
tion against social discontent where the conditions deny 
the advantages which flow from human association. 
Better a servant in the town than a proprietor in the 
country! — such has been the verdict of recent genera- 
tions who have grown up on the farm and left it to seek 
satisfaction for their social instincts in the life of the 
town. The starvation of the soul is almost as real as 
the starvation of the body. 

Irrigation compels the adoption of tlie small-farm 
unit. This is the germ of new social possibilities, and 
we shall see to what extent they have already been real- 
ized as we proceed. During the first and second eras of 
colonization in this country the favorite size for a farm 
was about four hundred acres, of which from a fourth 
to a half was gradually cleared and the rest retained in 
woodland. Tlie Mississippi Valley was settled mostly in 
quarter-sections, containing one hundred and sixty acres 
each. The j^roductive capacity of land is so largely in- 
creased by irrigation, and the amount which one family 
can cultivate by its own labor consequently so much re- 
duced, that the small-farm unit is a practical necessity 
in the arid region. 

Where settlement has been carried out upon the 
most enlightened lines irrigated farms range from five 
to twenty acres upon the average^, rarely exceeding forty 
acres at the maximum. It is perfectly obvious, of 
course, that a twenty-acre unit means that neighbors 
will be eight times as numerous as in a country settled 

45 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

lip in quarter-sections — that where farms are ten acres 
in size neighbors will be multiplied by sixteen. Tims 
in its most elementary aspect the society of the arid re- 
gion differs materially from that of a country of large 
farms. Eight or sixteen families upon a quarter-section 
are much better than no neighbors at all, but irrigation 
goes further than this in revolutionizing the social side 
of rural life. 

A very-small -farm unit makes it possible for those who 
till the soil to live in the town. The farm village, or 
home centre, is a well-established feature of life in Arid 
America, and a feature which is destined to enjoy wide 
and rapid extension. Each four or five thousand acres 
of cultivated land will sustain a thrifty and beautiful 
hamlet, where all the people may live close together 
and enjoy most of the social and educational advantages 
within the reach of the best eastern town. Their chil- 
dren will have kindergartens as well as schools, and pub- 
lic libraries and reading-rooms as well as churches. The 
farm village, lighted by electricity, furnished with domes- 
tic water through pipes, served Avith free postal delivery, 
and supplied with its own daily newspapers at morning 
and evening, has already been realized in Arid America. 
The great cities of the western valleys will not be cities 
in the old sense, but a long series of beautiful villages, 
connected by lines of electric motors, which will move 
their products and people from place to place. In this 
scene of intensely cultivated land, rich with its bloom 
and fruitage, with its spires and roofs, and with its car- 
pets of green and gold stretching away to the mountains, 
it will be difficult for the beholder to say where the town 
ends and the country begins. 

46 



THE MIRACLE OF IRRIGATION 

This is the miracle of irrigation upon its social side. 

Irrigation is the foundation of truly scientific agricult- 
ure. Tilling the soil by dependence upon rainfall is, by 
comparison, like a stage-coach to the railroad, like the 
tallow dip to the electric light. The perfect conditions 
for scientific agriculture would be presented by a place 
where it never rained, but where a system of irrigation 
furnished a never-failing water supply which could be 
adjusted to the varying needs of dilferent plants. It is 
difficult for those who have been in the habit of tliinking 
of irrigation as merely a substitute for rain to grasp the 
truth that precisely the contrary is the case. Rain is the 
poor dependence of those who cannot obtain the advan- 
tages of irrigation. The western farmer Avho has learned 
to irrigate thinks it would be quite as illogical for him 
to leave the watering of his potato-patch to the caprice 
of the clouds as for the housewife to defer her wash-day 
until she could catch rain-water in her tubs. 

The supreme advantage of irrigation consists not more 
in the fact that it assures moisture regardless of the 
weather than in the fact that it makes it i)ossible to ap- 
ply that moisture just when and just where it is needed. 
For instance, on some cloudless day the strawberry-patch 
looks thirsty and cries for water through the unmistak- 
able language of its leaves. In the Atlantic States it 
probably would not rain that day, such is the perversity 
of nature, but if it did it would rain alike on the just 
and unjust — on the strawberries, which would be bene- 
fited by it, and on the sugar-beets, which crave only the 
uninterrupted sunshine that they may pack their tiny 
cells with saccharine matter. In the arid region there is 
practically no rain during the growing season. Thus the 

47 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

scientific farmer sends the water from his canal through 
the little furrows which divide the lines of strawherry 
plants, but permits the water to go singing past his field 
of beets. 

Plants and trees require moisture as well as sunshine 
and soil, and for three reasons : first, that the tiny roots 
may extract the chemical qualities from the soil; then, 
that there may be sap and juice; finally, that there may 
be moisture to evaporate or transpire from the leaves. 
But while all plant- life requires moisture, all kinds of it 
do not require the same amount, nor do they desire to 
receive it at the same time and in the same manner. 
Just as the skilful teacher studies the individualities of 
fifty different boys, endeavoring to discover how he may 
most wisely vary his methods to obtain the best results 
from each, so the scientific farmer studies his fifty differ- 
ent plants or trees and adjusts his artificial "rainfall" 
in the way which will produce the highest outcome. 
With the aid of colleges, experimental farms, and county 
institutes, wonderful progress has been made along these 
lines in recent years. This progress will continue until 
the agriculture and horticulture practised on the little 
farms of Arid America shall match the marvellous re- 
sults won by research and inventive genius in every other 
field of human endeavor. 

This is the miracle of irrigation upon its scientific 
side.* 

* For full explanation of practical methods of UTigation, see 
Appendix. 



part SeconD 
EEAL UTOPIAS OF THE ARID WEST 

" At every new stage of the history of the Araerlcan settlement, 
we are afresh reminded tliat colonies are planted by the uneasy. 
The discontent that comes from poverty and financial reverse, that 
which is born of political unrest, and that which has no other cause 
than feverish thirst for novelty and hazardous adventure, had each 
a share in impelling Englishmen to emigrate. But in the seven- 
teenth century religion was the dominant concern— one might al- 
most say the dominant passion — of the English race, and it supplied 
much the most efficient motive to colonization. Not only did it 
propel men to America, but it acted as a distributing force on this 
side of the sea, producing secondary colonies by expelling from a 
new plantation the discontented and the persecuted to mjike fresh 
breaks in the wilderness for new settlements." — Edwarr Eggle- 
8T0N, Berji liners of a Nation. 



CHAPTER I 
THE MORMON" COMMONWEALTH 

To study the hnmau side of things in the arid region 
of the Far AVest, we must begin with the Mormon Com- 
monwealth of Utah. This is true for a number of excel- 
lent reasons. We find here the earliest development of 
any consequence. Although irrigation is older than his- 
tor}^, it was never practised upon any considerable scale 
by Anglo-Saxons until the Mormon pioneers turned the 
waters of City Creek upon the alkaline soil of Salt Lake 
Valley in the summer of 1847. 

In Utah, almost alone of the far-western States, settle- 
ment began with home-making pure and simple. Irriga- 
tion was the primal and single industry until a common- 
wealth had been established. In California, in Colorado, 
in Nevada, in Idaho, and in Montana, mining, rather 
than agriculture, was the motive which induced the or- 
iginal settlement by Americans, and irrigation grew up 
only as an adjunct to the mining camp. In Wyoming, 
and in a less degree elsewhere, stock-raising was the first 
pursuit and irrigation was used merely to flood the bot- 
tom land and grow crops of coarse, wild hay for the win- 
ter feeding of cattle. In Washington and Oregon the 
first settlements were made along the humid coast re- 
gion, and the arid parts of those States were settled, in 

51 



THE CONQUEST OF AlUD AMERICA 

such measure as they have been settled at all, by the 
overflow of those original cfirrents of population. But 
in Utah the motive was home-building, and the pursuit 
was agriculture for its own sake. 

Furthermore, we find in Utah, and nowhere else, an 
entire and distinct people, who have grown up under one 
strong and simple industrial system, and have brought 
that system to its logical results. This experience covers 
half a century, and cannot be objected to on the ground 
that it is an experiment, tiie results of which remain to 
be demonstrated. 

Finally, partly because of these several reasons and 
partly because the Mormon fugitives possessed no capital 
except their leader^s brains and their own hard hands, 
the economic institutions of Utah are the natural out- 
growth of the conditions of an arid land. Utah is the 
product of its environment. As we study it we shall 
see the economic tendencies underlying and shaping the 
industrial life of all communities which find their life- 
current in the irrigation canal and are surrounded by 
the rich and varied, but wholly undeveloped, resources 
of our far-western country. It is for these reasons that 
the Mormon Commonv/ealth suggests itself irresistibly 
as the starting-point of any proper study of our subject. 

What did the pioneers have to start with ? What have 
they accomplished in fifty years ? How did they do it ? 
In the answers to these questions we may find a flood of 
light for the future of the West, but only upon condition 
that the answers be sought in a spirit of perfect candor 
and without prejudice either in favor of or against the 
interesting people of the Utah mountains. 

On July 24, 1847, the Mormon caravan emerged from 

52 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

the mouth of Emigration Canyon into the valley of the 
Great Salt Lake. It was a beautiful picture that greeted 
the eyes of the fugitives as they rested here to enjoy the 
shade of the cottonwoods and listen to the music of the 
mountain torrent and the birds. Out of the chill air of 
the higher altitudes, out of the dark shadows of the 
picturesque chasm, they had come by a sudden turn 
face to face with a broad, sunlit valley, which sloped 
gently away to the shore of an inland sea. On the east, 
the Wasatch mountains reared their brown and rifted bar- 
riers until their summits were lost in a crown of eternal 
snows. To the south and west the Oquirrhs marshalled 
their peaks into the waters of the lake. Below them, 
valley and lake ; around them on every side, mountains 
and more mountains ; over them, the impalpable sky — 
this was the vision which burst suddenly upon the tired 
eyes of the pilgrims. 

When they had proceeded a little farther they caught 
sight of a large fresh lake some miles to the south, emp- 
tying its surplus waters into an inland sea through a 
slender river, which shone like a ribbon of silver. The 
comparison suggested by these strange conditions might 
have occurred to a duller mind than that of Brigham 
Young, who felt that he was a Moses leading a new tribe 
of Israel to a new promised land. The fresh lake was 
the sea of Tiberius ; the salt one, the Dead Sea ; the 
river was, of course, the Jordan. This, then, was the 
new Palestine, and here the leader and his followers 
would build the new Jerusalem ! Advancing a few 
miles into the valley, and halting near the banks of a 
roaring brook, Brigham Young struck his staff upon the 
ground and exclaimed, " Here we will rear our temple in 

53 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

holiness to the Lord." It is above this spot that Sculp- 
ftor Dallin's graceful figure of the Angel Moroni now 
looks down from a stately pile of Utah granite, reared 
at a cost of forty years' labor and six million dollars. 

The pioneers possessed very little cash capital when 
they arrived in the valley which was to^be the heart of a 
future commonwealth. This was not a serious misfort- 
une, since there was little that money would buy in 
Utah at that time, or anywhere within one thousand 
miles east, west, north, or south. They had located at 
almost the exact geographical centre of that great arid 
region whose modern agricultural era they were destined 
to inaugurate. Surrounded by extraordinary wealth, 
there was but one thing which could pass current as a 
medium of exchange in this primeval wilderness. This 
one thing was labor, and the free and unlimited coinage 
of labor has been the cardinal doctrine in Utah's econom- 
ic faith from the beginning down to the present hour. 
Besides their willing industry, the Mormons had brought 
with them the contents of seventy-two wagons, about 
one hundred horses, less than half as many mules and 
oxen, nineteen cows and a few chicken. It was with this 
capital that they began the making of Utah. But at the 
very threshold of their life in a new country they were 
confronted by something utterly strange to them in the 
conditions of agriculture. 

First of the Anglo-Saxon race, the Mormons encount- 
ered the problem of aridity, and discovered that its suc- 
cessful solution was the price of existence. Brigham 
Young had lived in Vermont, Ohio, Missouri, and Il- 
linois. Neither he nor any of his followers had ever 
seen a country where the rainfall did not suffice for agri- 

54 




MAP SHOWING THE STRIKING SIMILARITY BETWEEN PALESTINE 
AND SALT LAKE VALLEY, UTAH 

(Bj- courtesj^ of the Rio Grande Western R. R.) 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

culture, nor ever read of one save in the Bible. But 
they quickly learned that they had staked their whole 
future upon a region which could not produce a spear of 
tame grass, an ear of corn, nor a kernel of wheat with- 
out skilful irrigation. Of the art of irrigation they 
were utterly ignorant. But the need of beginning a 
planting was urgent and pressing, for their slender stock 
of provisions would not long protect them from starva- 
tion. 

It was this emergency which produced the first irriga- 
tion canal ever built by white men in the United States. 
Mormons are prone to believe that the suggestion of this 
work was a revelation from God to the head of the 
Church. Other traditions ascribe it to the advice of 
friendly Indians ; to the example of the Mexicans ; to 
the shrewd intuition with which the leader had met all 
the trials encountered in the course of his adventurous 
pilgrimage. Whatever the source of the inspiration, he 
quickly set his men at work to divert the waters of City 
Creek through a rude ditch and to prepare the ground 
for Utah's first farm. These crystal waters now furnish 
the domestic supply for a city of sixty thousand inhabi- 
tants. The late President Wilford Woodruff, who was 
one of the party assigned to the work of digging the first 
canal, related that when the water was turned out upon 
the desert the soil was so hard that the point of a plough 
would scarcely penetrate it. There was also much white 
alkali on the surface. It was, therefore, with no absolute 
conviction of success that the pioneers planted the very 
last of their stock of potatoes and awaited the result of 
the experiment. The crop prospered in spite of all ob- 
stacles, and demonstrated that a living could be wrung 

55 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

from the forbidding soil of tlio desert when men should 
learn to adapt their industry to the conditions. 

Such was the humble be2:inninG:of modern airriculture 
in Arid America. The success of this desperate expedi- 
ent to preserve the existence of a fugitive people in the 
vast solitude has made Utah our classic land of irrigation, 
and given the Mormons their just claim as the pioneer 
irrigators of the United States. It was not, however, 
until the}" survived other hardships, including the devas- 
tation of their first crops by swarms of crickets, that the 
hardy settlers were able to celebrate a genuine harvest- 
liome, and to feel that the ground was at last firm be- 
neath their feet. Then began that long era of material 
prosperity which will never cease until the people depart 
from the industrial system established by Brigham 
Young. 

It is this industrial system which makes the Mormons 
well worthy of study at this time. Nothing just like it 
exists elsev/here upon any considerable scale, yet its 
leading principles are certainly capable of general appli- 
cation. Good Mormons regard the system, like all their 
blessings, as a direct revelation of God. Many others 
consider it the intellectual product of a great man's 
brain. But when it is studied in connection with Mor- 
mon colonization, it is plain that the system was born of 
the necessities of the place and time — that it is the legit- 
imate product of the peculiar environment of the arid 
region. The forces that have made the civilization of 
Utah will make the civilization of western America. It 
is in this view of the matter that we shall find our justi- 
fication for a careful study of the Mormon structure of 
industry and society. 

5G 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

The economic life of Utali is fonndcd on the genenil 
ownership of hind. Spejikiiig broadly, all are proprie- 
tors, none are tenants. Land monopoly was discounte- 
nanced from the beginning. All were encouraged U^ 
take so much land as they could apply to a beneficij'^ 
purpose. None were permitted to secure land merely tc 
hold it out of use for speculation. The corner-stone oi 
the system was industrialism — the theory that all should 
work for what they were to have, and that all should 
ha\c what tl.oy had worked for. In order to realize 
this result, it was necessary that each family should own 
as much land as it could use to advantage, and no more. 

The adoption of this principle was plainly due to the 
peculiar conditions which the leader saw about him. He 
instantly realized that value resided in water rather than 
in land ; that there was much more land than water ; 
that water could only be conserved and distributed at 
great expense. 

If he had settled in a land of abundant rainfall it is 
improbable that he would have set such severe limitations 
upon the amount of land which individuals should ac- 
quire. In that case he would, perhaps, have thought it 
well for his people to take all the land they could possibly 
obtain under the law, and thus enjoy large speculative 
possibilities. But if he had pursued this policy in Utah 
he could not have accommodated the thousands whom 
he expected to follow him in the early future. lie thus 
found it imperatively necessary to restrict the amount of 
land which each family should acquire, suiting it to their 
actual needs. He came from a country which had been 
settled in farms ranfjjinc^ from two hundred to four hun- 
dred acres in size. The reduction in the farm unit 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

which he now proposed must have seemed nothing less 
than startling to his followers. It is plain that in pro- 
posing such an innovation he not only comprehended the 
social necessities of the situation, but anticipated, with 
remarkable foresight, the possibilities of intensive agri- 
culture by means of irrigation. 

The first settlement which he planned was, of course, 
Salt Lake City and its neighborhood. This became the 
model of all future colonies. It was laid out in such a 
way as to secure an equitable division of land values 
among all the inhabitants. 

The city blocks consist of ten acres each, divided into 
eight lots of one and a quarter acres. These lots were 
assigned to professional and business men. Next there 
was a tier of five-acre lots. These were assigned to me- 
chanics. Then there were tiers of ten-acre and of twenty- 
acre lots. These went to farmers, according to the size 
of their families. Under this arrangement every colon- 
ist was a small landed proprietor, owning a certain 
amount of irrigated soil from which he could readily pro- 
duce the necessities of life. The division of land values 
was remarkably even, for what one man lacked in 
area of his possessions he gained in location. The small 
lots were close to the centre of business ; the large lots 
more remote from that centre. As the place grew in 
course of years from an emigrants' camp to a populous 
city, with paved streets, domestic water, electric lights, 
and railways, the inevitable rise in values was distributed 
with remarkably even hand. Not a single family or indi- 
vidual failed to share in the great fund of ''unearned 
increment" which arose from increasing population and 
growing public improvements. 

58 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

This principle of universal land ownership, and of care- 
ful division according to location and of differing needs 
of various classes, has been followed throughout the 
Mormon settlements of Utah and surrounding States, 
and is being duplicated to-day in the latest colonies es- 
tablished by this people. 

It is important to note that the Mormon land system 
rested on individual proprietorship. There never was 
any attempt at community ownership. The unit of the 
State was the family and the home. But the moment 
we pass from the sphere of individual labor we encounter 
another principle, which was always applied, though not 
always by the same methods, to public utilities. This 
was the principle of public ownership and control. 

If the Mormon leaders had desired to organize their 
industrial life in a way to make large private fortunes 
for themselves, no single item in the list of Utah's re- 
sources would have offered a better chance for specula- 
tion than the water supply. It was perfectly feasible 
under the law for private individuals or companies to ap- 
propriate these waters, construct canals, sell water rights, 
and collect annual rental. By adopting this method, 
which widely prevails in other western States, they could 
have laid every field, orchard, and garden — every in- 
dividual and family — under tribute to them and their 
descendants forever. Neither in law nor in practice, at 
that time, was it any more a moral and economic wrong 
to appropriate privately and hold against the public the 
natural wealth of the streams than it was to do the same 
with the natural wealth of the mineral belts on govern- 
ment land. 

Probably the Mormons owed their escape from the 

69 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

misfortune of private irrigation works mostly to the fact 
that this feature of their institutions was established when 
none of their people possessed sufficient private capital to 
engage in costly enterprises. They started upon a basis 
of equality, for they were equally poor. They could buy 
water rights only with their labor. Tiiis labor they ap- 
plied in co-operation, and canal stock was issued to each 
man in proportion to the amount of work he had con- 
tributed to its construction. This in turn was deter- 
mined by the amount of land he owned, the owner of 
twenty acres doing just twice as much work as the owner 
of ten. Here we see the influence of aridity not only 
favoring, but compelling, the adoption of the principle 
of associative enterprise, as mentioned in a previous 
chapter. But before discussing the wider results of this 
influence in the life of Utah, it is important to observe 
the characteristic forms of agriculture which grew out 
of these new conditions. 

We have seen that Brigham Young had made twenty 
acres the maximum size of farms in the Salt Lake settle- 
ment. He now proceeded to lay down a philosophy very 
different from that which prevailed on the large farms 
of the wheat and corn country whence he had come. He 
urged that each family should realize the nearest possi- 
ble approach to absolute industrial independence within 
the boundaries of its own small farm. His sermons in 
the tabernacle dealt less in theology than in worldly com- 
mon-sense. The result is an agricultural system peculiar 
to Utah. 

Just as we have the cotton-belt in Texas, the corn-belt 
in Nebraska, the wheat-belt in Dakota, and the orange- 
district in California, so in Utah we have the land of the 

60 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

diversified farm. This is the first and one of the most 
precious fruits of the industrialism which had been so 
deeply rooted in the plan of general land ownership. 

Much of the misfortune which the settlers of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley have endured during the past decade is 
due to the fact that their industrial system was founded 
on the speculative instinct. They acquired large farms, 
because they hoped to get rich out of the rise in land. 
They engaged in the production of single crops, because 
they were gambling on the hope of great prices for these 
staples. They mortgaged their homesteads to make 
costly improvements, because they had the utmost faith 
in future big prices for the land and its product. It 
is very easy to comprehend the virtues of Utah industrial- 
ism when we may make use of a Texas cotton plantation 
or a Dakota wheat farm for a background. In the one 
case we see the little unmortgaged farm, its crops in- 
sured by irrigation, systematically producing a variety of 
things required for the family consumption. A generous 
living is within the control of the proprietor of such a 
home. In the other case we see the single crop exposed 
to the mercy of the weather and the markets, its owner 
employing many hired hands, and going to the town to 
buy with cash nearly all that is necessary to feed his 
family and laborers. 

The Utah system was clearly the outgrowth of the 
peculiar conditions with which the Mormons dealt. They 
were so far removed from all centres of production as to 
make self-sufficiency an imperative condition of existence. 
Hence they were taught the gospel of industrial inde- 
pendence in its purest and most primitive form. And 
self-sufficiency is the most striking characteristic of their 

61 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

civilization to-day. Wars and panics have swop t tbo 
country since the pioneers built their homes in Salt Lake 
Valley, but they and theirs have not gone hungry for a 
day or an hour. Nor need they do so while water runs 
down hill and mother earth yields her .increase. 

The conquest of Utah began with the establishment 
of agriculture, which is everywhere the foundation of 
civilization. Brigham Young realized, as the American 
people may well do to-day, that there can be no prosper- 
ity if agriculture languishes. He realized that whatever 
the Mormon people might have in the future — whatever 
of factories, stores, and banks, whatever of churches tem- 
ples, and tabernacles — must come primarily from the 
surplus profits of the soil. 

As soon as his people had been supplied with food and 
shelter, he turned his attention to the development of a 
broader industrial life. AVorkshops, stores, and banks 
were necessary to furnish facilities for manufacture, dis- 
tribution, and exchange. All these enterprises were un- 
dertaken in a co-operative way under the familiar forms 
of the joint-stock company. Those who were unwilling 
to engage in them upon these terms generally left the 
church and set up for themselves. At the beginning 
there was no capital for such undertakings except the 
capital which resided in every man's land and labor — no 
wealth but the commonwealth. As all had started on a 
basis of equality, so all were given an equal chance to 
participate in the new industrial, mercantile, and bank- 
ing enterprises of the Territory. When a factory or 
store was to be started subscription papers were circu- 
lated and everybody urged to take some of the stock. 
Payments were made sometimes in cash, more often in 

62 



TilE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

prodncts, not infrequently in labor. Of one thing there 
has never been a scarcity in XJtali — this is the chance to 
work. And labor has always been exchangeable there 
for other commodities, including bank and mercantile 
stock. Otherwise it would not have been possible to 
have secured anything like the wide distribution of these 
stocks which now prevails. 

In the early years the industries were of a crude sort. 
Everything had to be hauled in ox-teams over a thousand 
miles of deserts, plains, and mountains. The people 
used almost no money in their daily transactions. As a 
medium of exchange they had printed slips of paper 
known as " tithing-house scrip.'' This answered every 
I)urpose of exchange money, while the prices of com- 
modities were regulated by the standard of values which 
prevailed elsewhere. But while the local scrip did very 
well for all home purposes, it did not enable the people 
to purchase the supplies of machinery wliich they need- 
ed from abroad. The process of equipping their factories 
was, therefore, necessarily slow, but they rapidly devel- 
oped an army of skilled artisans, which was constantly 
augmented by immigration. But even without assis- 
tance from the great world which lay so far beyond the 
borders of their own valleys marvellous progress was 
achieved in the arts and industries. 

Brigham Young Avas strenuously opposed to the de- 
velopment of the mines by his people, believing that 
what they might gain in wealth from that source would 
be much more than offset by the demoralization which 
would come to his industrial forces with the rise of the 
speculative spirit. Above all other virtues he placed 
that of sober industry, earning its bread in the sweat of 

63 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

men's faces. That the mines would some day be worked 
by *^ Gentiles " he had no doubt, and he rightly calcu- 
lated that his own people would enjoy more prosperity 
by feeding the miners than by working the mines. A 
few of the many millions afterwards taken from the 
mountains around Salt Lake would have facilitated the 
growth and equipment of the Mormon industries im- 
mensely during the early years. But time and patience 
accomplished in the end all — perhaps more than an 
abundance of original capital might have done. Kearly 
all the industries essential to a complex and symmetrical 
business economy have been established for many years. 
Every important settlement has its co-operative store 
and bank. From the great beet-sugar factory at Lehi 
down to the smallest mercantile enterprise in the small- 
est hamlet, the business is owned by a multitude of stock- 
holders. 

The capital represents the surplus profits of the many. 
The system bears no likeness to Socialism. Nothing is 
owned by virtue of citizenship nor of membership in 
the church. No one owns a dollar's worth of stock who 
has not earned and paid for it. The system ia nothing 
but the joint-stock company with what may be called a 
generous and friendly interpretation. That is to say, it 
is really desired that everybody shall have an interest, 
and that all shall share the benefits. It should not be 
understood by any means that all have an equal owner- 
ship in these various enterprises, for the Mormon system 
has not resulted in making men equally successful. All 
have had an equal chance however, and the weak have 
been watched over and assisted by the strong. In- 
deed, this latter is one of the few good results to be 

64 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

credited to the exercise of church authority in secular 
affairs. 

It would be quite impracticable to attempt to fol- 
low the history of any considerable number of the many 
co-operative enterprises of Utah. Neither are figures 
available for a satisfactory generalization of results. 
But the whole system is typified in the experience of one 
monumental enterprise — Zion's Co-operative Mercantile 
Institution. This great house is in a sense the mother 
and the model of all the Mormon stores in Utah and its 
surrounding States. Mr. Thomas G. AVebber, the suc- 
cessful superintendent of " Z. C. M. I.," as it is famil- 
iarly called, describes the history of the enterprise as 
follows : 

'' The Institution was organized October 16, 1868 ; 
commenced business March 1, 18G9 ; was incorporated 
for twenty-five years from October 5, 1870, and the 
capital was then 1220,000. It was reincorporated for 
fifty years September 30, 1895, with a capital stock of 
$1,077,000. 

'^ During the life of our first incorporation period we 
have sold $76,352,680 worth of merchandise, and paid to 
the railroad and express companies for freight 16,908,630. 

"We have paid out in cash dividends $1,990,943.55, 
and in stock dividends $414,944.77. During the panic 
in 1873, for prudential reasons, we passed our dividend, 
and continued to do so until 1877, but during the whole 
of the period we have been in business, some twenty- 
seven years, we have paid to our stockholders an average 
dividend of nine and one-third per cent, for each and 
every year, or two hundred and forty-three per cent, in 
all ; $1,000 invested in our capital stock on the 1st of 
E 65 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

March, 1869, at the end of September, 1895, when our 
incorporation ran out, had accumulated to $2,014.30, 
and in addition to this we have paid upon this $1,000 in 
cash dividends the sum of $4,218.05. 

*^ We have turned out in our manufacturing depart- 
ments boots and shoes to the value of $2,053,294.43, and 
in our duck clothing and shirt factory upwards of 
$80,000 worth. Last year (1895) it was an off-year with 
our manufacturing departments, but we turned out 
75,400 pairs of boots and shoes, and 15,648 dozen over- 
alls, shirts, etc." 

This is the history of Utah's largest co-operative un- 
dertaking. It is a history which no friend of co-operative 
effort will blush to read, for it proves tliat a great busi- 
ness can be as successfully administered in the interest 
of the many as in the interest of a few. The latest 
and largest of the Mormon industrial enterprises is the 
beet - sugar factory, owned by seven hundred stock- 
holders, which in 1895 produced considerably more than 
700,000,000 pounds of sugar and paid a cash dividend 
of ten per cent. Its later dividends are much larger. 
It also furnished a profitable market for the products of 
many irrigated fields. 

While the most satisfactory results of co-operative en- 
terprise have been obtained in the last two decades, much 
was achieved in the early day. As early as 1850, Avhen 
Salt Lake Valley had been settled less than three years, 
the industrial products amounted to only a little less 
than three hundred thousand dollars. Ten years later 
they had mounted nearly to the million mark, and in 
1870 they considerably exceeded two and a quarter mill- 
ions. In 1895 the total was close to six millions. The 

66 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

growth of these hard-won industries has naturally fos- 
tered a feeling of intense loyalty to home products. 
Foreign goods are not a badge of honor. The Utah man 
wears Utah clothes, made in Utah factories, from wool 
sheared from the back of Utah sheep, with the same 
pride that a New York man wears a London hat and a 
New York woman a Paris gown. 

Let us look now at the broader results of the Mormon 
labor in the wilderness. The church historian, Mr. A. 
Milton Musser, has made a careful estimate of the finan- 
cial results which may fairly be credited to the irriga- 
tion industry in Utah. In doing so he communicated 
with church leaders throughout the State and compiled 
the results of his correspondence with the utmost care. 
The statement is given just as he prepared it, without 
attempt to discuss it in detail. To fully comprehend it 
however, the reader must remember that the Mormons 
began in poverty, having almost nothing to invest ex- 
cept the labor of their hands and brains, and that all 
they have expended in a period of nearly fifty years for all 
classes of improvements — from the first shanty to the 
last turret of the last temple — came primarily from the 
soil. Here is the balance-sheet of the Mormon people as 
Mr. Musser prepared it : 

Cost of establishing the 10,000 farms ($187.50 

per farm per annum) $75,000,000 

Cost of making irrigation canals and ditches 

($37.50 per farm per annum) 15,000,000 

Cost of irrigating 10,000 farms and gardens 

($24.00 each per annum) 9,600,000 

Building factories 5,000,000 

Building temples 8,000,000 

67 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Building churches and schools $4,000,000 

Cost of missionary work 10,000,000 

Cost of immigrating and sustaining the poor 8,000,000 

Living of the farmers ($875 to each family 

per annum) 350,000,000 

Cost of roads and bridges in mountains and 

valleys 4,000,000 

Cost of Indian wars, building forts, stockades, 

breaking up settlements, etc 5,000,000 

Cost of feeding and clothing Indians and 
establishing Indian missions, farms, 
schools, etc 2,000,000 

Cost of resisting the invasion of the army of 
1857, and of the people of Salt Lake 
county and the counties north moving 
south into middle and southern Utah 6,000,000 

Loss sustained by crickets, locusts, and grass- 
hoppers 2,500,000 

Unsuccessful early experiments in making 
iron, sugar, paper, nails, leather, cotton- 
raising, mining, etc 6,000,000 

Cost of defence against anti-polygamy legisla- 
tion believed to be unconstitutional 3,000,000 

Heavy freight rates from the Missouri river 

and the Pacific coast before the railroads 8,000,000 

Cost of establishing the Overland Mail and 
Express Company, purchase of Fort 
Bridger, and establishment of Fort Sup- 
ply, abandoned and afterward absorbed 
by the army of 1857 2,000,000 

Protecting overland travel, succoring and 
feeding California, Oregon, and other 
emigrants 1,500,000 

Cost of colonizing Carson and Green River 
' counties, abandoned because of the 

army of 1857 2,000,000 

Cost of establishing colonies on Salmon 

68 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

river, in Lower California, and the sugar 

plantation near Honolulu $1,500,000 

Cost of local telegraph aad railroad lines 3,000,000 

Cost of obtaining fuel, and building and 
fencing materials, from the rugged 
mountains and canyons many miles away 10,000,000 
Cost of making settlements on the Muddy, 
Call's Landing, Florence, Sunset, and 
other localities, afterwards abandoned be- 
cause of adverse conditions subsequently 

developed 1,000,000 

Losses by fire ($20,000 per annum) 800,000 

Taxes 8,000,000 

Miscellaneous expenditures 12,000,000 

$562,900,000 
Less the personal property brought into Utah 
by immigrants, such as cattle, wagons, 
cash, etc 20,000,000 

^542,900,000 

In his note transmittins; these fissures Mr. Musser 
writes : "The inclosed has been submitted to the inspec- 
tion of Presidents Woodrnff, Cannon, and Smith, and 
Bishops Preston, Burton, and Winder, as well as to others 
conversant with such matters. All agree that the esti- 
mates are as fair as they can be given." And he adds, 
with a reverence characteristic of his people: "While 
much of our prosperity is due to industrious, temperate, 
and frugal habits of life, yet we never lose sight of the 
overruling hand of the Almighty in all these results, and 
to Him be given praise and thanksgiving without stint." 

In a private letter accompanying these statistics His- 
torian Musser directed attention to the fact that upon 
this showing each Mormon farmer enjoyed an average 

69 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

income of four hundred and eiglity-two dollars above the 
cost of living for ouch of the more than forty years which 
the statement covers. This is a considerably higher re- 
turn than the gross amount averaged by wage earners in 
the United States. 

While in many particulars this imposing statement of 
results may be open to criticism, there can be no doubt 
that it was prepared with conscientious care. It is pre- 
sented here for what it may be worth. To the writer it 
seems to confirm the impression of a vast material achieve- 
ment which comes to any person upon visiting Utah and 
looking about him. For the present purpose the precise 
statistical facts are of less consequence than the economic 
principles which have produced what everybody acknowl- 
edges to be a wonderful result. These principles may be 
briefly summarized as follows : 

GENERAL LAND OWNERSHIP, LIMITED TO THE AMOUNT 
WHICH FAMILIES AND INDIVIDUALS COULD APPLY TO A 
USEFUL PURPOSE. 

SELF-SUFFICIENCY IN AGRICULTURE, AIMING AT THE 
COMPLETE ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE OF THE PEOPLE, IN- 
DIVIDUALLY AND COLLECTIVELY. 

THE PUBLIC OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC UTILITIES, SUCH AS 
AVATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION AND DOMESTIC USES. 

THE CO-OPERATIVE, OR ASSOCIATIVE, OWNERSHIP AND 
ADMINISTRATION OF STORES, FACTORIES, AND BANKS, 
THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE JOINT-STOCK COMPANY. 

These are the underlying principles of the Mormon 
commonwealth. They are vindicated by the successful 
experience of the last half century. Nowhere else do so 
large a percentage of the people own their homes free 
from incumbrance. Nowhere else has labor received so 

70 



I 



TIIK MOltMON COMMONWEALTH 

fjiir a filiiiro of wIiiiL it lia:-^ ci'oMtcMl. INTovvlicrc olso lias tlio 
common prosperity been retired upon lirmer foundations. 
Nowhere else are institutions more firmly buttressed or 
better capable of resisting violent economic revolutions. 
The thunder-cloud which passed over the land in IH'So, 
leaving a path of commercial ruin from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific;, was [)ow(!rh5Ss to close th(^ door of a single 
Mormon store, factory, or bank. Strong in prosperity, 
the co-operative industrial and commercial system stood 
immovable in the hour of wide-spr(;ad disaster. The sol- 
vency of these inrJustries is scarcely more striking than 
the solvency of the farmers from whom they draw their 
strength. No other Governor, cither in the West or in the 
East, is abhi to say what the Honorable 1 Leber M. Wells 
said in assuming the chief magistracy of the new State 
in January, \HiU>. ^* We have in Utah," said the young 
(Governor, ^*lll,81(> farnis, and 17,084 of the mare abso- 
lut(!ly free of incumbrance.'" A higher percentage in 
school attendance and a lower percentage of illiterates 
than even in the States of Massachusetts, is another of 
Utali/s proud records. 

So far we have been dealing with facts that arc be- 
yond dispute. No one can deny that the Mormon indus- 
trial and commercial system is correctly described in the 
foregoing pages, nor that that system has made the peo- 
jlle remarkably prosperous in a^i economic sense. But 
for the purposes of this book it is highly essential to 
determine just what weight should be given to the Mor- 
mon exj;)erience as a guide for future colonization effort 
in the arid West, and to what degree the Utah system 
is founded u[)on correct principles of industrial and 
social economy. 

71 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

The problem can be summed up in two questions 
which have doubtless already occurred to the reader : 
Was the Utah experience possible without Brigham 
Young ? Was Brigham Young possible without the 
Church ? 

The first of these questions may be answered unhesi- 
tatingly in the negative. Without a Brigham Young 
there could have been no such record of achievement in 
the deserts of Utah. He was the brains and the soul of 
the enterprise. He planned with extraordinary sagacity 
and wrought with tremendous vigor. Leave out that 
brain and soul — that sasjacitv and vigor — and we can 
conceive of no emigration from Nauvoo ; of no success- 
fnl march over plain and mountain ; of no triumph over 
the almost insuperable difficulties which intervened be- 
tween the arrival of the people in Salt Lake Valley in 
1847 and the firmly established community of fifty years 
later. But what of that ? The concession of the indis- 
pensable fact of Brigham Young amounts only to the 
concession, equally applicable to all human undertak- 
ings of magnitude, that leadership is absolutely essen- 
tial. 

This brings us to the other and more complicated 
question: Was Brigham Young possible without the 
Church ? First let us see what manner of man he 
was. 

Born in Vermont, of good native stock, he had the 
characteristics of the place and the race in a pre-eminent 
degree. He was shrewd and thrifty, far-seeing and in- 
tensely practical. He was of coarse fibre, deficient in 
the finer feelings, and devoid of all imagination of the 
jioctic kind. Of his innumerable sermons and speeches 

70, 



THE xMORMON COMMONWEALTH 

nothing survives save an occasional homely maxim, such 
as, '' Plough deep and plant alfalfa." Like all his sayings 
and all his works, this marks the mind and method of 
the materialist rather than of the idealist. "Whatever 
else he really thought of polj^gamy, he at least helieved 
it a capital method of increasing the population of a new 
country, and that happened to bo the particular work 
upon which his effort and ambition were engaged. 

A leader of men ? Most emphatically, but of the grim 
and masterful sort — a Cromwell rather than a Lincoln. 
While no orator, he had strong persuasive powers. These 
were supported by splendid enthusiasm and optimism. 
He could set men at work with the conviction in their 
minds that success was certain, failure impossible. 

This man was Successful in what he undertook to do. 
He did not originate Mormonism. He added nothing 
to its creed or its literature, though he added much to 
its power. But finding the Mormons a despised and 
hunted people, he set himself the task of extricating 
them from intolerable surroundings, of leading them a 
thousand miles across an almost unexplored country, 
and of founding, in the midst of untried conditions, a 
commonwealth where they could rear their homes and 
temples and wax great and strong. Who can doubt that 
if he had undertaken to build a transcontinental rail- 
road, like Ames and Huntington ; to found a pork-pack- 
ing business, like Armour ; or to lead an army, like Grant, 
he would have commanded success ? Ho had all the 
elements of a successful man in any of the greater walks 
of life where pluck and brains, determination and vast 
ambition, are the requisite qualities. If he was a relig- 
ious fanatic, there never was another of his composition. 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Poet or orator he could not have been ; seer, revelator, 
and ecclesiastic he was not, save to the superstitious 
vision of his blind followers ; but great, resourceful, and 
of commanding personality he was — a captain of industry, 
an organizer of prosperity; and the Utah of to-day is 
his undeniable claim to fame and his imperishable monu- 
ment. 

So much for the man. What of the Church ? It was 
unquestionably the instrument used in the settlement 
of Utah. It is being used to-day as an instrument in 
settling portions of Canada, Mexico, and other localities. 
Regarded simply as a Church, it is successful numerically 
and financially. It is one of the few creeds where secu- 
lar and religious affairs are brought into the closest as- 
sociation, and, for this reason, it is generally believed 
that church solidarity is the true explanation of the 
economic prosperity of the Mormons. This conclusion 
rests upon the theory that the Church sustains the in- 
dustrial system. The writer emphatically dissents from 
this notion, and confidently asserts that precisely the re- 
verse is the tru,th — that the industrial system sustains 
the Church. 

The principles upon which the Mormon industrial and 
social structure was reared have been carefully presented 
in this chapter. These principles have worked success- 
fully for fifty years. To determine the part which they 
had in the actual result, let us ask ourselves this ques- 
tion : Suppose the plans initiated by Brigham Young had 
failed to give his followers the security of a home and 
the certainty of a living ; that their co-operative industry 
had produced losses rather than profits ; that their vil- 
lage system had brought social discontent instead of 

74 



THE MORMON COMMONWEALTH 

satisfaction — what then ? Is it conceivable that religious 
fanaticism could have held them together and lent such 
an impulse to their grov/th that to-day, nearly a quarter 
of a century after the death of Brigham Young, they 
should be growing faster than ever before, maintaining 
more missionaries and building more colonies in various 
l^arts of the world ? Surely economic fallacy never pro- 
duced such striking results as these in any other instance 
known to history. 

It would perhaps be a tenable position to say that in 
Utah a sound economic systeui, working in conjunction 
with religious enthusiasm, produced the result now 
known of all men ; but that would be very nearly equiva- 
lent to saying that the only way to solve the problem of 
reclamation and settlement in the arid regions is to turn 
the task over to the Mormon Church and to advise all 
who crave homes to join that organization. The writer 
believes that the attraction of Mormonism has consisted 
mostly in what it offered to the home-seeker, and that 
the secret of its cohesion is the prosperity that has re- 
sulted from its industrial system rather than the occult 
power of its creed. 

Polygamy has so stirred the Christian world that no 
man may speak in praise of any of the Mormon institu- 
tions except at the risk of being misunderstood, or pos- 
sibly regarded as an apologist for what the nation has 
condemned as a crime against womanhood. On the 
other hand, no candid mind can study the problem which 
confronts the American people — the problem of opening 
the cloor to the masses of our citizenship upon the un- 
used natural resources of the nation — without realizing 
that Brigham Young and the State he founded furnish 

75 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

stronger and clearer light for the future of domestic 
colonization than any other experience that can possibly 
be discovered. It is in the earnest conviction that it is 
a high public service to show the virtues of the Mormon 
industrial system that this chapter is written. 



CHAPTER II 
THE GEEELEY COLOiq^Y OF COLORADO 

The Greeley Colony of Colorado sprang belated from 
the seed of Foiirierism sown broadcast in the forties. 
In all our social history there is no more interesting page 
than that which records the rise, progress, and tem- 
porary defeat of the doctrine of association. Fraught 
with the noblest aspirations, and welcomed and cham- 
pioned by the most brilliant minds, it disappointed, in 
actual practice, the high hopes of its friends. Frangois 
Marie Charles Fourier devoted his life to elaborating his 
scheme of Socialism, and died a few years before the 
seed of his thought was wafted across the Atlantic to 
take sudden root in our soil. 

The American impulse of Fourierism arose from the 
miseries of the hard winter of 1838. The doctrine had 
been imported by Albert Brisbane, a young gentleman of 
wealth and leisure who had studied the works of the 
French philosopher in Paris and returned to this country 
warm with these new hopes for humanity. Availing 
himself of the opportunity offered by the universal dis- 
content, he plunged boldly into the agitation and at- 
tracted a remarkable degree of attention. Horace 
Greeley, then in the morning of his fame, espoused the 
new cause, at first cautiously, then with characteristic 

77 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMEKICA 

energy and daring. The period of agitation covered the 
years between 1840 and 1847. The men of thought soon 
won the confidence of the men of action, and a large 
number of associations for the purpose of bringing 
Fonrierism to the practical test were formed in various 
States. In May, 1843, Mr. Greeley wrote in the Tribune: 
" The doctrine of association is spreading throughout 
the country with a rapidity which we did not anticipate, 
and of which we had but little hope. We receive papers 
from nearly all parts of the northern and western States, 
and some from the South, containing articles upon as- 
sociation, in which general views and outlines of the 
system are given. Efforts are making in various parts 
of this State, in Vermont, in Pennsylvania, Indiana, and 
Illinois, to establish associations, which will probably be 
successful in the course of the present year.'' 

There was not much difficulty in obtaining recruits for 
these undertakings, and the experiment v/as entered 
upon with great enthusiasm. With a single exception, 
it ended in failure. The most famous of these colonies 
was Brook Farm, at West Eoxbury, nine miles from 
Boston. Eev. George Eipley was the head of the enter- 
prise. With him were associated, either as actual col- 
onists or active sympathizers and supporters, Nathaniel 
Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry D. Thoreau, 
James Freeman Clarke, William Ellery Channing, Bron- 
son Alcott, George Bancroft, Charles A. Dana, Margaret 
Fuller, and many others whose names rank high in the 
annals of American literature. Never before, and never 
afterwards, was such a galaxy of brains assembled in a 
single colony. Most of them were then in young man- 
hood, with their fame all before them. But the historian 



THE GREELEY COLONY OF COLORADO 

of the enterprise sadly relates that, at the end of their 
first year they found they had a surplus of philosophers 
and a dearth of men who could hoe potatoes. And New 
England has been smiling about Brook Farm ever since. 
The end of Fourierism in the United States was the joint 
debate between Horace Greeley and Henry J. Raymond 
in their respective newspapers, tlie Tribune and the 
Courier, of New York. 

In the minds of the devoted constituency of the New 
York Tribune, the idea of colony-planting as a means of 
improving the lot of average humanity had taken deep 
root, so that twenty-five years after Fourier's dream had 
ceased to flourish as a social experiment, a colony repre- 
senting its hopes, if not its methods, could gain supporters. 

The new venture was initiated by Nathan Cook Meeker, 
who had succeeded Solon Robinson as agricultural editor 
of the New York Tribune at the close of the war. In 
1844 Mr. Meeker had been an active participant in the 
Trumbull Phalanx at Warren, Ohio. This had expired 
of ague, poverty, and dissension, after a fitful career of 
about three years. " If the place had been healthy,^' 
Mr. Meeker said afterwards, " we should have held out 
longer, and the idle and improvident would have got 
more out of the industrious and patient ; but I have no 
reason to suppose that we should not have finally ex- 
ploded, either in some fight, or at least in disgust. '^ 
From this experience he emerged disappointed and des- 
titute, but with valuable lessons for the future and un- 
shaken faith in the utility of colonization effort. The 
knowledge thus dearly bought he was destined to apply, 
many years later, in a useful career as one of the found- 
ers of a State. 

79 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

In the fall of 1SG9 Mr. Meeker had returned from a 
trip to the Far "West,, the object of which was to describe 
the Mormon industrial system in a series of letters to the 
Tribune. Encountering a snow blockade at Cheyenne, 
which compelled him to postpone his visit to Utah, he 
had goMd to Colorado instead. It was at the time when 
the Kansas Pacific Railroad was pushing across the plains 
to the budding village of Denver, transforming the wag- 
on-trail into a highway of civilization. Everywhere ^Ir. 
Meeker beheld the dawn of a new industrial life in the 
midst of a wilderness. He was charmed with the climate 
and scenery, and impressed with the material wealth of 
the country's undeveloped resources. The old enthusi- 
asm for colony-making filled his imagination. AVearied 
with a life struggle to remodel old social structures, he 
longed to avail himself of this opportunity to build on 
new foundations. 

These hopes he communicated to his friend, John Rus- 
sell Young, who agreed to bring the matter to the atten- 
tion of Horace G-reeley. This he did at a dinner held at 
Delmonico's in December, ISGO. Mr. Greeley was in- 
stantly interested, and beckoned Mr. Meeker to join him 
at the table. "I understand you have a notion to start 
a colony to go to Colorado,'^ said the editor. " Well,'*^ 
he continued, "I wish you would take hold of it, for I 
think it will be a great success, and if I could, I would 
go myself.'' Thus assured of powerful backing, Mr. 
Meeker at once proceeded to form his plans, 
j The prospectus of the new colony was drawn up by 
Mr. Meeker, but carefully weighed and revised by Mr. 
Greeley. A quarter of a century had elapsed since these 
men had been engaged — the one as active participant, 

80.- 
P 



THE GREELEY COLONY OF COLORADO 

the other as the most conspicuous American champion — 
in the Fourier scheme of association. It is interestins: to 
observe just how much of the okl pLan survived in the 
new colony prospectus, when the thought of these leaders 
had been mellowed and broadened by many more years of 
life and experience. 

In the Fourier communities the people had lived to- 
gether under one roof, in the hope of effecting large 
household economies. There had been common owner- 
ship of land, and an attempt at equal division of labor. 
The unit of the community was the whole ; the only in- 
dividual, the public. 

In forming the plan of the new colony the lessons of 
experience were not forgotten. There was but a single 
suggestion of the " phalanstery,^' or common household 
of Fourier days, and that was advanced in timid terms. 
'*It seems to me," Mr. Meeker wrote, ^'^that a laundry 
and bakery might be established, and the washing and 
baking done for all the community ; but other household 
work should be done by the families. "" It was provided 
that the unit of society should be the family, living under 
its own roof ; that farms and homes should be owned 
independently ; that individuals should plan their own 
labor, and rise or fall by their industry and thrift, or lack 
of them. The new ideal was that of an organized com- 
munity which should give the people the benefit of as- 
sociation without hampering individual enterprise and 
ability. It furnished a means of settlement essentially 
different from that under which the Middle West had 
been developed. 

Land was to be purchased on a large scale with a com- 
mon fund. This cheapened its cost, and gave the col- 
p 81 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

onists an important measure of control in its sub - di- 
vision and development. The settlement was to be made 
almost wholly in a village, the land being divided into 
blocks of ten acres, and the blocks into eight lots for 
building purposes. It was proposed to apportion each 
family ^'from forty to eighty, even one hundred and six- 
ty acres," adjoining the village. Northampton, in Mass- 
achusetts, and several other New England towns and vil- 
lages, had been settled in this manner. A feature of 
much interest was the proposal to have the residence and 
business lots sold for the benefit of the colony's treasury, 
the capital so obtained to be appropriated for public im- 
provements, such as building a church, a town-hall, and 
a school -house, and establishing a public library. This 
plan marked an important departure in town-making. 
Town sites, as a rule, especially where the community 
promises a rapid growth, are treated as opportunities for 
private speculation. The boom comes, and everybody 
prospers ; the boom goes, and a few schemers have man- 
aged to acquire nearly all the cash capital. Under the 
new plan, as the prospectus pointed out, ^' the increased 
value of real estate will be for the benefit of all the peo- 
ple."" They would receive these benefits, too, in the best 
form, as in the shape of permanent improvements essen- 
tial to their social and intellectual well-being, and of 
capital available for industrial purposes. 

Other advantages of settling in a village were pre- 
sented as follows : '' Easy access to schools and public 
places, meetings, lectures, and the like. In planting, in 
fruit-growing, and improving homes generally, the skill 
and experience of a few will be common to all, and 
much greater progress can be made than where each lives 

82 



THE GREELEY COLONY OF COLORADO 

isolated. Refined society and all the advantages of an 
old country will be secured in a few years ; while, on the 
contrary, where settlements are made by old methods 
people are obliged to wait twenty, forty, or more years." 

This prospectus was published in the New York Trib- 
une of December 14, 1869, with a hearty editorial indorse- 
ment. Spite of radical departures in the matter of 
private landholding and individual industry, the vital 
spirit of Fourierism lived and breathed through the cau- 
tious lines of the announcement. There was still the 
high ideal of social and civic life, of industrial indepen- 
dence, of a scheme of labor which should give to the la- 
borer an equitable share of what he produced. There 
was still the plan of co-operation in achieving things for 
the common benefit. There was still the craving for a 
society composed of sober, temperate, industrious people. 
The common household had been discarded for the family 
home and hearth-stone, but for the barbarism and isola- 
tion of life on great farms there had been substituted the 
association of homes in the village centre, with the best 
social and intellectual opportunities. Behind the new 
plan, as behind the old, stood the patient energy and faith 
of Meeker and the glorious optimism of Greeley. 

The announcement had met with a prompt and en- 
thusiastic response at the hands of several hundred peo- 
ple, who had organized the Union Colony of Colorado at 
a meeting held at the Cooper Institute in New York, 
where Horace Greeley had presided. A committee had 
selected twelve thousand acres of railroad and govern- 
ment land in the valley of the Cache la Poudre, twenty 
miles northwest of Denver, on the line of railway then 
building to Cheyenne. The pioneers of the colony were 

83 



THE CONQUEST OF APtlD AMERICA , 

thus able to begin settlement in the spring of 1870, and 
to bring to the test of actual experience the social and 
industrial plans set forth in the prospectus. A party of 
eastern people, most of whom came from cities, they en- 
tered cheerfully upon the task of adjusting a high ideal 
to the untried conditions of a country which had previ- 
ously known only the Indian, the hunter, and the cow- 
boy. Their experience for the next twenty years has a 
larger significance than merely local history, since the 
community is one of the landmarks in western life. 

Mr. Meeker having refused the use of his own name, 
the new town was christened '^ Greeley," and this name 
was popularly applied to the colony also, in spite of its 
incorporated title. The first severe test of the co- 
operative principle, which had been relied upon for the 
larger enterprises, arose in connection with the building 
of canals. There had been no misconception as to the 
need of irrigation, but it was supposed that the works 
could be quickly constructed and the new methods of 
agriculture readily learned. The original estimate of 
cost was twenty thousand dollars. The actual outlay be- 
fore the works were completed reached four hundred 
and twelve thousand, or more than twenty times the es- 
timate. For resources to meet this unexpected demand, 
the colony had only receipts from the sales of property 
and the subscriptions and labor of its members. The re- 
sult was not reached without serious dissensions and 
some desertions, but the works were built, and the commu- 
nity survived with its co-operative principle intact. It is 
not to be believed that a private enterprise could have lived 
through a similar experience with the same slender finan- 
cial resources, for it was the public spirit and pride which 

84 



THE GREELEY COLONY OF COLORADO 

saved the day at this critical juncture. These increased 
as difficulties multiplied, and rose with the tide of out- 
side criticism and abuse. The process welded the people 
together, and made them strong enough to meet success- 
fully the obstacles which yet remained. 

Having provided water for their lands, the settlers pro- 
ceeded to create the irrigation industry of Colorado ; for 
nothing worthy of the name existed on the scattered 
ranches of the sparsely settled Territory. The new- 
comers brought their intelligence to bear upon the prob- 
lem of perfecting skilful methods of irrigation and culti- 
vation, and of discovering the classes of crops best 
adapted to the soil and climate. This work quickly led 
them to realize another disappointment of serious import. 
They had dreamed of orchards and vineyards, and of 
homes set in the midst of beautiful flowers and delicate 
shrubbery. Experiment soon taught them that they had 
been deceived about the character of tlie country. The 
hopes which had been built upon the fruit industry failed 
utterly, and the colonists were compelled to fall back 
upon general farming. This involved somewhat larger 
farms, and rendered more difficult the realization of their 
social plans. Very likely it saved them from the evils 
of the single crop which has marred the prosperity of 
many agricultural districts. The diversified products of 
the soil yielded them a comfortable living. Since there 
was no hope of obtaining cash income from fruit, they 
sought another surplus crop, and found it in the potato, 
to wliich their soil proved to be peculiarly adapted. They 
made an exhaustive study of this culture, and at last pro- 
duced in the " Greeley potato" one of the famous crops of 
the West. Its superiority readily commands the best place 

85 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

in the market, and there have been years when the crop 
has returned a million dollars to the potato districts of 
which the colony is the centre. The farmers invented a 
pool system which frequently enabled them to control 
the output, and so influence prices in their favor. 

Events proved that the colonists were gainers by reason 
of the trials and disapiDointments which attended the 
establishment of their industrial life. Though the cost 
of their canals had so far outrun their expectations, they 
obtained their water supply much cheaper than did sub- 
sequent communities who patronized private companies. 
At Greeley the cost of a water-right for eighty acres was 
three hundred and fifty dollars. This made the user a 
proportionate owner of the works. ^Vhere canals were 
IDrivate, settlers paid twelve hundred dollars for precisely 
the same amount of water, while the works remained the 
property of a foreign corporation. The difference in the 
price of water under the two systems represented a very 
handsome dividend for those who had persisted in their 
allegiance to the co-operative principle. In the same 
way, the colonists profited from their struggle to realize 
the best agricultural methods. They won a reputation 
for their products which possessed actual commercial 
value, and they became the teachers of irrigation, furnish- 
ing practical examples to students of the subject and 
contributing largely to its literature. These results must 
be credited to the fact that the community was organized, 
and that the people acted with a common impulse. 

Passing now from the industrial to the civic side of the 
colony life, we find that the high public spirit in which 
the community was conceived left its marks not less in- 
delibly. In the original pros23ectus Mr. Meeker had 

86 



THE GREELEY COLONY OF COLORADO 

plainly stated, '' The persons with whom I would be will- 
ing to associate must be temperance men and ambitious 
to establish good society." This was no sounding phrase, 
for the founder and his fellow-colonists wrote their prin- 
ciples into the title deeds which transferred farm and 
village property from the company to individuals. These 
provided that if intoxicating liquor were ever manufact- 
ured or sold on the land, title should immediately revert 
to the colony. The provision was enforced with splendid 
intolerance. Those who were not in accord with its spirit 
had not been invited to come, nor were they made com- 
fortable while they stayed. Their unbending attitude on 
this subject gave the men of Greeley the title of *^Puri- 
tans," which was a unique distinction in the Far West, 
in that day of cowboys and border rufiians. The prohi- 
bition chiuse in the deeds was stoutly resisted by a small 
minority, and went from court to court, until it was 
finally vindicated by the supreme tribunal at AVashington. 
The Greeley local sentiment has always upheld the princi- 
ple, and insisted that it was responsible for the admitted- 
ly high character of the community. Like several of the 
colony's plans, it has been extensively imitated. 

The government of the community was vested in exe- 
cutive officers, but was actually ruled by public opinion. 
This found expression in numerous town meetings held 
in Colony Hall, which was one of the earliest buildings 
erected. Here all the public affairs were discussed Avitli 
perfect frankness to the last detail, and no public officer 
ventured to stray far from the conclusions there pro- 
nounced. 

Not even the early hardships and disappointments 
were permitted to mar the social life of the colony. The 

87 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

people made the most of the opportunities offered by the 
association of homes in the village, and organized a 
variety of social and intellectual diversions. At an early 
period an irreverent newspaper writer remarked: •'The 
town of Greeley is a delectable arena, for of the entire 
population three-fourths are members of clubs that are 
eternally in session. Day may sink into night, flowers 
may bloom and fade, and the seasons roll round with the 
year, but Greeley clubs are unchangeable." In one of 
the letters by which Mr. Meeker kept the readers of the 
Xew York Tribune informed of the progress of the com- 
munity, he spoke of these "overflowing meetings/*' and 
said : '*' In all our experience we have never seen such in- 
stitutions so well sustained ; and if we wanted to show 
strangers the best that is to be seen of Greeley we wotild 
have them visit the Lyceum.'' 

David Boyd, who was both a prominent actor in these 
scenes and the historian of the colony, writes of the same 
subject, and throws a suggestive side-light on a notable 
trait of western life when he says: •*'In coming to a 
country which offered so many new questions for solution 
and presented so many new aspects of life, the minds even of 
those past their prime experienced a sort of rejuvenation. 
Beins: nearlv all strangers to one another, each was ambi- 
tious to begin his new record as well as possible, and so 
put the best foot foremost.'' Here is the explanation of 
much of the superior energy which marks the life of new 
communities, and here lies the hope of social progress 
through colonization. The individuality all but obliter- 
ated in the great city springs anew and develops into 
blossom and fruitage in the fresh soil of colonial life. In- 
stitutions which would be quite impracticable in old and 

SS 



THE GREELEY COLOXY OF COLORADO 

crowded centres get a footing in new coantries, where 
men may exert untrammeled energies, and more freely 
in that atmosphere of social equality which is certain to 
characterize new communities and likely to endure while 
they continue small. 

In considering the net results of Greeley Colony, it is 
imjx»rtant to note first that it has been thoroughly suc- 
cessful. In this respect it presents a striking contrast to 
the Foturier experiment, from which it may be said to 
have descended. Each man prospered according to his 
merit., and what the community undertook to do by 
means of co-operation it accomplished. It cannot be said 
that the latter principle was applied extensively. The 
capital realized from the sale of property was so largely 
absorbed in the construction of canals as to leave little 
surplus for other industrial and commercial enterprises. 
If one-half of this capital had been available for stores, 
banks, and small industries, it is likely that much which 
was necessarily left to private initiative would have been 
undertaken by the colony. In that case we should find 
broader lessons in co-operative effort than we do now. It 
it is also important to note that the community owed its 
prosperity to its high ideal and uncompromising public 
spirit. There was here no common religious tie as in the 
early Xew England colonies : no shadow of persecution 
such as that which bound the Mormon pioneers together 
in an indissoluble brotherhood. The nearest approach 
to this influence was the prohibition sentiment, and this 
formed but a small part of the original plan. These colo- 
nists were earnest men and women who had srone forth 
to make homes where they could combine industrial in- 
dependence with S'X^ial equality and intellectual oppor- 

St) 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

tunity. They were grimly determined to accomplish 
what they had undertaken. This spirit, and this alone, 
kept them from going to pieces during the first five years, 
and laid the foundation for their permanent prosperity. 

Both Colorado and the arid West owe much to the ex- 
ample of Greeley. It lent an impulse to the develop- 
ment of their civic character, and made a deep and last- 
ing impression upon their agricultural industry. The 
influence of the community on its immediate surround- 
ings is yet more plainly visible. Its success resulted in 
large irrigation develop/nents and numerous settlements 
in Colorado, Wyoming, and western Nebraska. A com- 
munity without a pauper or a millionaire, Greeley has 
yet had a surplus both of men and of capital to con- 
tribute to the making of new districts. The colony of 
to-day is a well-built town of comfortable homes and 
substantial business blocks, surrounded by well -culti- 
vated farms connected by a comprehensive canal system, 
which is the property of the land-owners. Although in 
periods of general business depression it has felt the 
heavy hand of hard times, few communities in the world 
possess a better assurance of a comfortable living in the 
future, while none has better educational and social ad- 
vantages. 

Horace Greeley followed the colony's development 
with the closest interest, writing frequent letters of ad- 
vice, and even finding time to pay a hurried visit. His 
Jast letter to Mr. Meeker, written six days before his 
death, was as follows : 

" Friend Meeker, — I presume you have already drawn on me 
for the one thousand dollars to buy land. If you have not, please 
do so at once. I have not much money, and probably never shall 

90 



THE GREELEY COLONY OF COLORADO 

have, but I believe in Union Colony and you, and consider this a 
good investment for my children." 

To N. C. Meeker Mr. Greeley^'s death Avas, indeed, ca- 
lamitous. Depriving him of necessary income from news- 
paper sources, as well as of financial backing in the col- 
ony operations, it made it necessary for him to seek 
employment in the public service, and this was directly 
responsible for his death. He was massacred by the 
Indians while serving as agent on the White River 
reservation. *His work for the colony had been entirely 
unselfish, and his name deserves high rank among the 
founders of western civilization. 



1 



CHAPTER III 

THE EVOLUTIOJ^ OF SOUTHERN CALIFORKIA 

The most valuable lessons in all the romantic history 
of California may be found in a trivial corner of the 
great commonwealth. Upon a clear day the eye may 
readily scan its entire length from the San Timoteo 
hills to the shining sea. Between its parallel mountain 
ranges the width of the district seems but two or three 
miles, though in reality it is from ten to twenty miles. 
l2:norinc{ the nomenclature of local districts, this is the 
San Bernardino Valley. It is upon this narrow terri- 
tory that to a great degree the fame of California climate 
and productions rests. Here institutions have been 
created in the last thirty years which are destined to ex- 
ert a powerful influence upon the future of the AVest. 

What Holland was to the life of Europe in the four- 
teenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, southern Cal- 
ifornia is to the life of the Pacific coast at the end of the 
nineteenth century. The industrial impulse which the 
men of the Netherlands caught from their conquest of the 
sea, the men of the southern valleys caught from their con- 
quest of the desert. '' Curbing the ocean and overflowing 
rivers with their dikes," says one of the closest students of 
Dutch history, " they came to love the soil, their own cre- 
ation, and to till it with patient, almost tender care.'' So 

92 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

they became the fathers of scientific farming in Europe. 
They wrought a marvellous revolution in the methods 
of cultivating the soil. '' When Catherine of Aragon 
wished for a salad she was compelled to send for it 
across the Ciiannel by a special messenger." The civ- 
ilization founded upon this wonderful agriculture main- 
tained its high character through the whole range of 
their economic life. The habits of skilful industry 
which grew from the intensely cultivated soil conferred 
the same prosperity when adapted to the workshop and 
the store. The thread of co-operation spun from their 
common labor on the dikes ran through the entire in- 
dustrial fabric of the crowded little nation. The influ- 
ence of neighborly association involved in the conditions 
of existence on farms of petty size colored and shaped 
their social life. As it was in Holland, so it is in south- 
ern California. 

The men of the southern valleys made the small-farm 
unit supreme. With marvellous patience and intelli- 
gence they worked out the highest methods of watering 
and tilling the soil known to the world. Tempering 
their speculative instincts with love of home, they de- 
veloped towns and surroundings of rare beauty and com- 
fort, and made them centres of high social and intellect- 
ual life. To compare these conditions with those which 
prevail in the great wheat- and cattle-ranches of the 
North, where labor is mostly servile, and where beauty 
has never laid its hand upon the home or dooryard, is 
like comparing Holland to Paraguay. Although the 
South has by no means escaped the evils of the single 
crop, it has vindicated irrigation and the small farm, and 
the extraordinary social possibilities inherent in both. 

93 " 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

These are the valnahle lessons which may be set against 
the failures and disappointments of the last two dec- 
ades. 

In the stormy and heroic days of the gold epoch, of the 
Bear Flag, of the American conquest, and of the vigi- 
lance committees, southern California played a small 
part. Its past is the dreamy memory of old mission 
days, of peaceful shepherds, of great haciendas, of a land 
dominated by Spanish folk and speech. The land was a 
desert of sage-brush and cactus, in which a few scattered 
mission gardens made charming oases. Along moist 
river-bottoms there were sometimes fields and gardens, 
though not of the highest type. On the uplands light 
crops of wheat and barley were occasionally harvested, if 
spring rains happened to be fairly generous. But it was, 
apparently, a country which offered nothing to the 
stranger save climate and scenery. To this barren place 
came irrigation and the Anglo-Saxon, bringing a new 
era in their train. 

The evolution of Southern California may be studied 
in the experience of two rejoresentative colonies. These 
are Anaheim and Riverside. Both were undertaken by 
comparatively poor men, and made important contribu- 
tions to the permanent prosperity of the district in which 
they settled. The success which they achieved and the 
methods by which they accomplished it colored and 
shaped the larger institutions which grew from these 
pioneer plantings. Anaheim owes its historical impor- 
tance to the fact that it was the mother colony, but it 
gains added interest as an examjDle of the way in which 
a number of petty capitalists may combine their means 
in large enterprises. It is useful, too, as showing the 

94 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

outcome of the settlement of city workingmen on agri- 
cultural lands. Riverside represents a higher degree of 
social conditions, and is especially important and inter- 
esting as an example of the influence exerted by an en- 
tirely new element of population upon a country which 
had been neither developed nor appreciated by its natives 
and early settlers. A brief glance at the beginnings of 
these two communities is essential to any just compre- 
hension of the condition and tendencies of the southern 
California of to-day. 

Anaheim was projected forty years ago by a party of 
Germans in San Francisco. They were all mechanics 
and small tradesmen, and each was possessed of a modest 
amount of savings. It was proposed that this capital 
should be united in a common fund and used for the 
purchase and improvement of a large tract of land. For 
this purpose a colony association was formed, the mem- 
bers paying one hundred dollars each and agreeing to 
make further contributions in monthly instalments. A 
committee was sent out to discover a good location and 
contract for its purchase. A body of land near the Santa 
Ana river, twenty-five miles southeast of Los Angeles, 
was chosen. A part of the colony was then detailed to 
build an irrigation canal, divide the land into twenty- 
acre farms, with a central village, and plant the whole 
tract in orchards and vineyards. In the mean time the 
main body of the association remained in San Francisco, 
earning money and sustaining the work in the field. 
When the colony had thus been completely prepared for 
occupancy, the settlers came with their families, build- 
ing their houses in the village and assigning the farms 
to individuals by drawing lots. In order to make this di- 

95 



- THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

vision equitable, those who obtained the choicest property 
paid a premium, which was divided among those to whom 
the poorer places had fallen. Most of the colonists devoted 
themselves exclusively to agriculture, but enough opened 
small shops and worked at their trades as blacksmiths, 
carpenters, painters, shoemakers, and tailors, to meet 
the needs of the community. AVitli the division of the 
land the association settled its accounts, and only the ir- 
rigation canal remained public property. Co-operation 
had served an excellent purpose, however, in enabling 
the people to obtain their land at first cost, and to have 
it improved skilfully and economically in advance of 
their coming. 

Beyond the hope of dwelling beneath their own roofg 
and working for themselves, the founders of Anaheim 
had brought no special ideal to the southern valley. 
They were people of common tastes, well content with 
simple prosperity and comfort. The community was 
thoroughly successful. It is also possible to record an 
almost uniform story of individual ease of life for the 
settlers. While a few became discouraged and sold out 
to their neighbors, much the greater number remained 
and became comfortably well off, while a few rose to 
wealth. They had come to the colony from the employ- 
ments of city life, yet readily adapted themselves to the 
work of tilling the soil of their small farms. But the 
true importance of Anaheim was seen in the impulse 
which it gave to a new form of development in southern 
California. It had been a region of great ranches, 
where live-stock and grain held almost complete sway. 
Anaheim pointed the way to the subdivision of large es- 
tates and the intensive cnltivation of the soil with the 

96 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

aid of irrigation. This demonstration was destined to 
work a revolution in the character of the people and 
country. 

The Riverside Colony, perhaps the most widely cele- 
brated of any of these communities, is a better example 
of the colonial life of California. In a truer sense than 
Anaheim, it is a product of irrigation, and it illustrates 
more fully than the mother colony the social possibili- 
ties inherent in this form of agriculture. Its history 
reveals a curious struggle between the forces of co-op- 
eration and of private enterprise, in the course of which 
both lent much strength to the colony and exerted a 
marked influence upon its fortunes. Like most of the 
pioneer settlements. Riverside was the dream of com- 
paratively poor men who sought, in the fresh o]3portuni- 
ties of a new country, better conditions for themselves 
and their children. The enterprise originated with 
Judge North, of Knoxville, Tennessee. Ilis prospectus 
was issued from that place in the spring of 1870, and 
evoked a large response from many different States. In 
this prospectus the founder did not undertake to out- 
line a social organization with any detail. 

^^Appreciating the advantages of associative settle- 
ment," ran the circular, ''^we aim to secure at least one 
hundred good families who can invest one thousand 
dollars each in the purchase of land; while at the same 
time we invite all good, industrious people to join us who 
can, by investing a smaller amount, contribute in any 
degree to the general prosperity." The advantage of 
co-operative over individual settlement was rather for- 
cibly expressed: '^Experience in the West has demon- 
strated that one hundred dollars invested in a colony 
G 97 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

is worth one thonsand dollars invested in an isolated lo- 
cality." That the projectors had formed a very decided 
opinion as to the most favorable location is evident in 
the following: *MVe do not expect to buy as much land 
for the same money in southern California as we could 
obtain in parts of Colorado or Wyoming; but we ex- 
pect it to be worth more in proportion to cost than any 
other land we could purchase within the United States. 
It will cost something more to get to California than it 
would to reach the States this side of the mountains, 
but we are very confident that the superior advantages 
of soil and climate will comj^ensate us many times over 
for this increased expense." 

His circular had attracted the attention of a few men 
of considerable means^ and with these Judge North 
set out for California to select the site of the under- 
taking. With the rare intuition which eastern men 
have frequently displayed in going to the West, the new- 
comers selected a location which seemed quite preposter- 
ous to the natives of the country. Planning the most 
ideal development which had thus far been attempted, 
they deliberately bought lands which had formerly been as- 
sessed at a valuation of seventy-five cents an acre. These 
lands then constituted a sheep pasture of inferior sort. 
They were similar to the stretch of desert which the 
transcontinental traveller sees in passing through Ari- 
zona. After the winter rains they bore a short-lived 
crop of wild flowers, but during most of the year they 
offered nothing more attractive than sage-brush and 
mesquite. The Mexican who owned them had not suffi- 
cient imagination to perceive how the new proprietors 
could realize a profit upon the modest sum of two dol- 

98 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

]«irs and n, lialf an acre, for wliicli ho gladly sold them. 
But Jndgc North and liis friends had two well-defined 
ideas in their brains. One was irrigation; the other, 
oranges. To the natives the first seemed im^oracticable, 
because of the expense ; and the other ridiculous, be- 
(jause no one had ever raised oranges there upon a com- 
mercial scale. 

The Santa Ana river rises in the Sierra Madre moun- 
tains, drawing its volume from a multitude of springs 
and canyon streams. It flows southwesterly for a dis- 
tance of seventy miles, Avhere it empties into the ocean. 
Riverside is about twenty miles from the source of the 
stream, and lies on the bluffs along its eastern bank. 
The conditions did not present such oj^tportunities for 
tlie cheap and easy diversion of the waters as the Mor- 
mon pioneers found in Utah. In later years, as the de- 
mand for irrigation grew constantly larger and more 
insistent, it became necessary to resort to the very high- 
est type of works for the distribution of water, and even 
the earliest canal required a casli outlay of fifty thou- 
sand dollars. Fortunately the capital was available, and 
thus the work of development went forward without fal- 
tering. The original canal was completed in the spring 
of 1S71. 

The enterprise had resolved itself into a private stock 
company, owning both the land and the water. The 
land was now sold to the colonists for twenty-five dollars 
an acre. This included the right to purchase a certain 
amount of water, for which there was an extra charge in 
the form of an annual rental. At the beginning this 
amounted to about one dollar an acre, but it rose with 
the demand for water, and the need of costly improve- 

99 

L. •fc. 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA , 

ments in the system, until it readied an annual charge 
of ten dollars an acre. 

In the experience of Riverside we may see the com- 
mercial romance of irrigation in its most striking form. 
The original sheep pasture, assessed at seventy-five cents 
an acre, sold readily at twenty-five doHars an acre when 
irrigation facilities had heen supplied. While this re- 
presented a handsome profit to the original investors, 
it was extremely moderate compared with the returns 
Avhich the second purchasers realized. A few years 
later the unimproved lands sold for prices ranging from 
three hundred to five hundred dollars per acre. The 
improved orange orchards, which had been evolved from 
the sheep pasture, were valued, and actually sold, at 
one thousand to two thousand dollars per acre. There 
have been years when the best of them earned a profit of 
fifty per cent, on the higher figure. 

Riverside was destined to win its chief celebrity as the 
pioneer orange colony. Its founders had based their 
faith in the possibilities of this industry on what they 
had seen in the gardens of old missions. 

They did not hesitate to plant their lands largely with 
citrus fruits in the face of many predictions of disaster. 
The new culture prospered from the start, but made se- 
vere demands upon the patience and intelligence of the 
settlers. Duriug the same years in which the Greeley 
colonists were working out, by means of experiment and 
painful experience, the solution of agricultural problems 
for Colorado, the Riverside colonists were performing 
precisely the same service for southern California. The 
skill and the enterprise which the one people applied to 
potatoes, the other applied to oranges, with the same 

100 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

high results. The Riverside colonists not only exhaust- 
ed their own sources of information on the subject of 
citrus culture, but induced the State Department at 
Washington to make its consuls in semi-tropical coun- 
tries their agents. In this way they were enabled to learn 
all that foreign horticulturists knew about the business. 
They made constant progress in improving the standard 
of their fruit, their most marked triumph in this direction 
being the production of the Washington navel, or seedless, 
orange. Tlieir orchards represented all the choicest 
varieties, which were cultivated with the highest skill. 
The original colony tract of two thousand acres has been 
gradually extended until it includes ten thousand. The 
shipment of oranges has risen to over four thousand car 
loads annually, realizing a million and a half of dollars. 

The projector of Riverside had framed his prospectus 
on the lines of co-operative effort. We have seen that 
the enterprise speedily became private and speculative in 
character. This result was mostly due to the necessity 
of using large capital for the initial development, and to 
the fact that the colony included a group of individuals 
who possessed considerable means. Possibly the same 
result might have occurred in Utah if the Mormon pio- 
neers had not enjoyed a fortunate equality in the matter 
of poverty. In Utah there was no capital except labor 
and brains, and these admitted of no other form of en- 
terprise than pure co-operation. 

The speculative instinct which took possession of River- 
side and ran a mad race through southern California, ac- 
complished much good, as well as much evil. And in the 
end the pioneer orange colony returned very closely to 
the original ideal of its founder. The principal irriga- 

101 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

tion system became in time the property of the people, 
and the water-rights were inseparably associated with the 
land. The orange-growers also found it necessary to seek 
refuge from the rapacity of the commission system in the 
adoption of co-operation for the sale of their product. 
Hence, in the two most vital features of their industry 
— the watering of their lands and the handling of their 
crops — Riverside is fully realizing to-day the hopes in 
which it was originally conceived. On the side of its 
social life it has never departed from its first ideal, and 
it is in this aspect that it may be studied to the best ad- 
vantage. 

The homes and avenues of this colony, which have 
been evolved from an inferior sheei^ pasture in less than 
a generation, are among the most beautiful in the world. 
In considering their widely celebrated charms, it should 
never be forgotten that these are the homes and sur- 
roundings of average people, and that they earn their 
living by tilling the soil. Making due allowance for cli- 
matic diiferences, there are equally beautiful residence 
districts in the suburbs of great eastern cities ; but these 
belong to people who enjoy a degree of prosperity much 
above the average — to the small minority who are rich, 
or at least unusually well-to-do. They are not farmers, 
but business or professional men who have risen above 
the general level of society. At Riverside, on the other 
hand, at least ninety per cent, of the total population 
live in homes which front on beautiful boulevards, pre- 
senting to the passer an almost unbroken view of well- 
kept lawns, opulent flower-beds, and delicate shrubbery. 
Newspaper carriers canter through these streets deliver- 
ing the local morning and evening dailies. Though this 

103 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

is a farming population, the homes are so close together 
that the people enjoy the convenience of free postal de- 
liverji They fill their bath-tubs with water piped 
through the streets. They light their homes with elec- 
tricity. In the centre of the colony they have fine stores, 
churches, hotels, and public halls. Their schools are of 
the highest standard, and are housed in buildings the 
beauty and convenience of which bespeak the good pub- 
lic taste. A well-patonized institution is the club-house 
and its reading-room. There is but a single saloon, and 
it is considered decidedly disreputable to frequent it. 

The first result of the early colonies was to give a tre- 
mendous impetus to the settlement and development 
of southern California. The fruits of this new impulse 
are seen in the scores of charming communities which 
stretch eastward to the margin of the Colorado desert 
and southward to the border of Mexico. Redlands, On- 
tario, and Pomona are typical examples. The impres- 
sive city of Los Angeles, which grows alike in good times 
and in bad, is another product of the movement which 
traces back to the humble beginnings of these pioneer 
settlements established by a superior class of eastern 
emigrants. High land values and costly irrigation works 
have naturally resulted. But these are only the super- 
ficial evidences of economic forces which lie deeper, and 
which should be noted as the peculiar product of the 
colonial life of southern California. 

The germ of Riverside, and of the civilization which 
it inaugurated in the San Bernardino Valley, is the small 
farm made possible by irrigation. This is alone respon- 
sible for the character of industrial and social institu- 
tions and of the people who sustain them. Where farms 

103 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

are very small — in Riverside they are from five to ten 
acres in size — they necessarily belong to the many. This 
means a class of small landed proprietors at the base of 
society. The condition is one which forbids the exist- 
ence of a mass of servile labor like that which lives npon 
tlie cotton plantations of the South, and, to a greater or 
less extent, npon large farms everywhere, including the 
greater part of California itself. On a small farm the 
proprietary family does most of the work. Hence the 
main part of the population in such districts as Riverside 
is independent and self-employing. 

The people of southern California are plainly moving 
along the line which leads to public ownership of public 
utilities and co-operative management of commercial 
affairs. But with them the movement is an economic 
growth rather than a political agitation. It is the logi- 
cal outcome of their environment and necessities. A 
great body of producers and proprietors of the soil, they 
formerly stood between private irrigation systems, sup- 
plying the life-current of their fields, and private com- 
mission houses, furnishing the only outlet for their prod- 
ucts. The condition was an intolerable one, since it made 
them utterly dependent upon agencies beyond their con- 
trol. These instrumentalities the people are rapidly 
taking into their own hands, and it is inconceivable that 
they can ever again pass into private control. It is prob- 
able that California has seen almost the last of the at- 
tempts to establish the policy of private ownership of irri- 
gation works, the most vital of all public utilities in arid 
regions. The system of co-operative fruit exchanges is 
carried forward by the same impulse. Already it handles 
more than half the enormous product. The producers 

101 



I 



EVOLUTION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 

have their own packing-lionses, make cash advances to 
their members, and send their agents to represent them 
in distant markets. 

It is pleasant to note that beautiful homes and liigh 
average prosperity have not spoiled the democratic sim- 
plicity of these comuumities. After the adjournment of 
the International Irrigation Congress at Los Angeles in 
1893, its members enjoyed the hospitalities of many of 
the charming colonies in the neighborhood. In his re- 
marks at a banquet tendered the party by the people of 
Santa Ana, Sefior de Ybarrola, the representative of 
Mexico, paid a handsome compliment to the ladies who 
had waited upon the table. Afterwards one of the dis- 
tinguished representatives of France remarked his sur- 
prise at hearing a public compliment to '''the servants." 

'^What!'^ exclaimed Sefior de Ybarrola, '''did you 
think they were servants ? AYhy, those were the leading 
ladies of Santa Ana." 

"Do you mean to tell me," the French delegate de- 
manded, in amazement, '' that the leading ladies of Santa 
Ana put on aprons to serve strangers ?" 

"Certainly," the Mexican replied ; "for in this coun- 
try service is a title to respect." 

The incident illustrates at once the hospitality and the 
equality which are characteristic of the social life of 
southern California. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE REVOLUTIONT OlS" THE PLAIN'S 

The semi-arid portion of the Great Plains constitutes 
a distinct division of the irrigation empire. Its history 
and its problems are peculiarly its own. During the last 
half century it has lived through three stirring and ro- 
mantic epochs and entered upon a fourth. This last is 
one of absorbing human interest, and will doubtless 
shape the permanent civilization of the region. 

When Francis Parkman and the Mormon pioneers tra- 
versed the country, late in tliQ forties, it swarmed with 
herds of buffalo and tribes of hostile Indians. It was the 
era of savagery, broken only by the presence of a few 
frontier posts, which served as the occasional refuge of 
adventurers and hunters. 

Almost miraculously the buffalo disappeared, and the 
red men retreated before the white wave which over- 
flowed the western bank of the Mississippi and began 
gradually to people the eastern margin of the plains. 
Then the savagery of the desert suddenly gave way to 
the semi-barbarism of an epoch of cattle-kings and cow- 
boys. 

Just as the Indian and the trapper had surrendered to 
the cowboy and his herds, so the latter in their turn re- 
ceded and largely disappeared before another element 

106 



THE REVOLUTION ON THE PLAINS 

which now swiftly arose in the life of the Great Plains. 
The third era of American colonization, noted in a pre- 
vious chapter, was yet at the stage of flood-tide. New 
railroads were pushing their iron highways westward 
across the prairie. Such entre2)6ts as Chicago, St. Paul, 
Omaha, and Kansas City were crowded with hopeful im- 
migrants whose appetite for government land had been 
whetted by the stories of prosperity with which the news- 
papers teemed. Horace Greeley's famous injunction, 
^' Go west, young man," still rang in the ears of am- 
bitious youth and homeless middle-age. Land agents 
urged on the multitudes with a zeal born of the com- 
missions on which it fed. 

In the enthusiasm of the hour no one gave heed to the 
few croakers who hinted that there was somewhere a 
mysterious boundary-line beyond which all efforts at set- 
tlement must be disastrous. There was a theory that 
rainfall moved westward with population, and that the 
cultivation of the land wrought changes in climatic con- 
ditions. Under these circumstances it was not strange 
that the home-seeking hosts crossed the unknown boun- 
dary into the region of scant rainfall, and learned in hard- 
ship and bitterness the lessons which a more cautious and 
far-seeing government would have comprehended and 
taught to its children. 

In the absence of such scientific determination of the 
conditions of the country, tens of thousands expended all 
their money and the most precious years of their lives 
in discovering what could not be done in the semi-arid 
region. The crushing and pathetic truth that nature 
had denied sufficient rainfall for the production of crops 
in a region where a multitude of people had made their 

107 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

homes dawned slowly upon the public mind, and the con- 
clusion v/as stubbornly resisted. 

Between the acknowledgment of this fact and the be- 
ginning of practical efforts looking to the use of irri- 
gation, there was a brief but exciting intermediate stage 
in which high hopes were built upon the possibility of 
precipitating rain by artificial means. An Australian 
genius suddenly appeared with a mysterious prescription 
warranted to assemble clouds in a clear sky and compel 
them to weep in the shape of copious showers. The end 
of this undertaking Avas the failure of the experiment 
and the suicide of the inventor. One of the railways dis- 
covered another wizard with another prescription, and 
hauled his special car over the entire length of its line, 
promising showers on regular schedule time* Even the 
Agricultural Department at Washington expended several 
thousand dollars in experiments in this direction. In 
this case, however, there was no mystery about the method 
adopted. It was the use of powerful explosives to be 
discharged at a high elevation. As nobody denied that 
heavy showers frequently followed great battles, and that 
it generally rained on the night of the Fourth of July, 
there were high hopes for the success of this undertaking, 
which occurred on an elaborate scale in Texas. Secre- 
tary Rusk described the preparations in detail, and sum- 
marized the outcome in the sententious remark : '^ The 
result was — a loud noise!'' The theory exploded with 
the dynamite and disappeared from the minds of men 
with the last reverberation on the Texas prairies. 

The mysterious line which divides the region of fairly 
reliable rainfall from the land of sunshine has been dis- 
covered at last and generally accepted. This, as stated 

108 



THE REVOLUTION ON THE PLAINS 

before, is the ninety-seventh meridian west from Green- 
wich. It divides the United States almost exactly into 
halves,, running through the middle of North Dakota, 
South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, -lud 
Texas. The vast territory lying between this meridian 
and the foothills of the Rockies, bounded on the north 
by Canada and on the south by Mexico, is the semi -arid 
region of the Great Plains. Over all this vast district 
the tide of settlement had flowed and ebbed again, as we 
have seen. It now awaits the full development of the 
fourth epoch in its eventful and romantic history. The 
character and extent of this development is governed by 
the nature of the water supply, which differs materially 
in the several States. 

The utility of irrigation on the plains was revealed in 
a curious way. In Finney county, near the western bor- 
der of Kansas, thousands of acres were planted to wheat 
in the summer of 1878, and it seemed the sanest of proj- 
ects to build a grist-mill to grind the crop. This was 
undertaken near the Arkansas river by enterprising 
merchants in the neighboring community of Garden 
City, but the new institution began and ended with a 
mill-race. Before the building and machinery were re- 
quired, the wheat had surrendered to dry air and hot 
winds. Not an acre of the crop was harvested. And 
yet the blighted seed was destined to bear another and 
far more fateful crop and the forgotten mill-race on the 
banks of the Arkansas to grind a grist that would prove 
historic. 

A few settlers remained to rake amid the ashes of 
their ruined hopes. Among them was a man who had 
learned the methods of irrigation while living in Cali- 

109 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

foriiia and Colorado. It happened that his land ad- 
joined the abandoned mill-race, and he readily obtained 
the right to turn the water upon a part of his farm. 
The result, though not surprising to the practised irri- 
gator, was a revelation to his thoroughly disheartened 
neighbors. The soil which produced nothing in the 
previous summer responded to the new method of culti- 
vation with enormous crops of all varieties of products. 
In quality they surpassed anything previously grown in 
that region. As these facts became known a new hope 
arose, like a star in the night, against the dark back- 
ground of past discouragements. The Garden City 
" experiment" became the Mecca of students of irrigation 
throughout the wide region devastated by the drought. 
The ruined crop of the previous year and the useless 
mill-race gave birth to an influence which in fifteen 
years has assumed far-reaching proportions. 

Kansas is the mother of irrigation on the plains. When 
the people heard of the miracle Avrought by the waters 
of the abandoned mill-race their optimism instantly fore- 
told a better civilization than they had dreamed of. 
Irrigation began here with canal-building in the valley 
of the Arkansas river. For a time the work was prose- 
cuted with remarkable vigor. As early as 1890 over 
four hundred miles of large canals had been built, at a 
cost of nearly three million dollars. But the industry 
came suddenly face to face with an unexpected and 
almost fatal obstacle. 

The Arkansas river rises in the mountains of Colo- 
rado and waters a broad and fertile valley before cross- 
ing the boundary into Kansas. In the upper State 
enterprise was busy with the diversion of its waters. 

110 



THE REVOLUTION ON THE PLAINS 

In tlie absence of any regulation of interstate streams 
by national authority, the Colorado irrigators claimed, 
the right to take the last drop of water for their own 
canals. This they proceeded to do during the growing 
season, leaving the canals of western Kansas as dry as 
its prairies. The investment of an English company in 
extensive works costing more than a million dollars was 
practically destroyed by this turn of affairs. There were 
many similar losses of less magnitude. It was at this 
stage that the lamented humorist "Bill Nye" remarked 
of some of the western rivers that " they are a mile wide 
and an inch thick — they have a large circulation, but 
very little influence." 

When the Kansas irrigators found themselves deprived 
of their surface supplies they sought the underflow, and 
in the process of finding and utilizing it developed an 
entirely unique and very promising mode of irrigation. 

The new experiment was first made at Garden City, 
within sight of the historic mill-race. It was found that 
in the Arkansas Valley water could be obtained by shal- 
low wells ranging in depth from eight to twenty feet. 
This is raised by hundreds of wind-mills into hundreds 
of small reservoirs constructed at the highest point of 
each farm. The uniform eastward slope of the plains is 
seven feet to the mile. The indefatigable Kansas wind 
keeps the mills in active operation, and the reservoirs 
are always full of water, which is drawn off as it is re- 
quired for purposes of irrigation. These small indi- 
vidual pumping-plants have certain advantages over the 
canal systems which prevail elsewhere. The irrigator 
has no entangling alliances with companies or co-oper- 
ative associations, and is able to manage the water supply 

111 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

without deferring to the convenience of others, or yield- 
ing obedience to rules and regulations essential to the 
orderly administration of systems which supj^ly largo 
numbers of consumers. The original cost of such a 
plant, exclusive of the farmer's own labor in construct- 
ing his reservoirs and ditches, is two hundred dollars, 
and the plant suffices for ten acres. The farmer thus 
pays twenty dollars per acre (about double the average 
price paid to canal systems in this region) for a per- 
petual guaranty of sufficient ^^ rain "to produce bounti- 
ful crops ; but to this cost must be added two dollars per 
acre as the annual price of maintaining the system. 

Farming under these conditions is limited to small 
areas, and intensive methods of cultivation become im- 
perative. The result has been the evolution of a multi- 
tude of five-, ten-, and twenty-acre farms, each sur- 
rounded by its tall fringe of protecting cottonwoods, 
which inclose grounds variously planted to orchard, 
field, and garden. Perhaps these methods present a 
closer parallel to European agriculture than anything 
else found in this country, while the numerous wind- 
mills suggest comparison with Holland. Nowhere are 
there sharper contrasts than that which is presented by 
these green and fruitful farms, gleaming like islands of 
verdure upon the brown bosom of the far-stretching 
plains, which have been seared by the hot breath of rain- 
less winds. 

The uses of the artificial reservoirs are not limited to 
irrigation; they are usually stocked with fish, which 
multiply with surprising rapidity and enable the farmer 
to include this item of home produce in his bill of fare 
every day in the year. These fish are very tame, and in 

113 



THE UEVOLLFTION ON TllK PLAINS 

some cases actually trained to respond to the ringin/:^ 
of the dinner-bell, coming in scurrying shoals to fight 
for crumbs of bread thrown upon the water. (This fish 
story is a true one.) The reservoirs also yield a profit- 
able crop of ice in the winter. AVhen wo compare the 
hardships and bitterness of this locality but a few years 
since with the comfort and abundance Avhicli the infin- 
itely sm.'iUer farms yield to day, we behold anew the civ- 
ilizing power of irrigation. The Starvation Belt has be- 
come a Land of Plenty. 

The centre and inspiration of these developments is 
Garden City, capital of Finney county. What Greeley 
was to Colorado and liiverside to southern California, 
this little town has been to western Kansas. Perhaps 
no other small jilace on the plains suffered a more vio- 
lent attack of ^^boom^' than Garden City in the feverish 
times of the last decade. Certainly none has held with 
more tenacity to its confidence in the final outcome of 
the country or contributed more to the early vindica- 
tion of its faith. 

It is difficult to estimate the reasonable possibilities 
of windmill irrigation in Kansas. There are enthusiasts 
who insist that the industry will be extended to nearly 
every acre, uplands as well as valleys. There are pessi- 
mists who assert that the amount of land reclaimable by 
such means is relatively very small. Of this subject the 
conservative hydrographer of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, Mr. Frederick Ilaynes Newell, speaks as 
follows : 

*^The existence of the subsurface waters of the river 
valleys of western Kansas has long been known. Like 
every other natural resource, its importance, at one time 
n 113 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

little recognized, has been seized upon by the so-called 
'^boomers" and exaggerated to the extent of creating 
distrnst and depreciation. It is, however, one of the 
most important of the natural advantages of the State, 
and one upon which the foundations of prosperity must 
be carefully laid. By a thorough employment of the 
underground waters, with the best methods, much of 
the vacant land of the St.'ite will be utilized for agricult- 
ure, and the remainder can become a source of revenue, 
indirectly at least. Taking the Arkansas Valley as best 
illustrating these conditions, the general statement may 
be made that water can be had everywhere within the 
valley at moderate depths, and in quantities such as to 
be inexhaustible to ordinary pumping machinery if prop- 
erly installed." 

Referring to the very much larger territory lying out- 
side of the river valleys, the same authority says: 

*'In the 2^ortions of western and central Kansas where 
wells cannot be obtained at moderate depth, it will prob- 
ably be practicable to store considerable volumes of water 
by closing the outlets of natural depressions. Favorable 
localities, although somewhat rare, can be found in nearly 
every county, and by the proper construction of substan- 
tial earth-dams considerable volumes of water can be 
held for nso upon the lower lands. In one instance at 
least water thus stored has been pumped for use upon 
an orchard, and the success attained in this way should 
induce others to try similar devices.^' 

The drought of 1890 made Nebraska one of the im- 
portant irrigation States of the West. Canals had been 
built on the North Platte river near* the Wyoming 
boundary, several years earlier, but the irrigation indus- 

114 



THE REVOLUTION ON THE PLAINS 

try had won no general recognition. Thousands of 
farmers were persisting in the delusive hope of rainfall 
farming, and public sentiment was distinctly opposed to 
those who sought to include Nebraska in the arid re- 
gion. 

All this was changed by the events of 1800. In that 
year crops were ruined by dry weather and hot winds 
throughout a large part of the State, and the people in 
the western counties generally acknowledged tliat it was 
useless to longer persist in the effort to cultivate the 
soil without artificial moisture. Strangely enough, they 
seemed to draw a new inspiration from their blighted 
fields. Irrigation conventions were held at many county 
seats. The study of water resources, of methods and 
laws essential to tlicir utilization, became earnest and 
gene]*al. The popular agitation rapidly crystallized into 
a permanent and organized movement which has gath- 
ered strength with each passing year. Comprehensive 
laws were enacted by the legislature and the ofhce of 
State Engineer created. Meanwhile, large amounts of 
private capital were invested, many canals constructed, 
and the despised western counties began to rise in pub- 
lic esteem. 

It is now clearly apparent that the very lands which 
refused to yield a return for the industry of tlie first set- 
tlers will sustain the densest population in the future 
and give the most absolute assurance of permanent pros- 
perity. Already the time has come when a State irriga- 
tion fair can be held in western Nebraska and make a 
striking exhibition of results, and when a commonwealth 
which ten years ago resented as a libel the intimation 
that its rainfall was deficient, can proudly claim to rank 

lir, 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA ' 

among the greatest of irrigation States. The transforma- 
tion which has occurred in public opinion is no less 
striking than that of the agricultural industry itself. 

The State is more fortunate than some of its neighbors 
in the character and extent of its water supplies. Over 
its western boundary the North Platte pours a perennial 
stream of considerable volume, which feeds a number of 
large canals. The surface flow of the South Platte 
is mostly absorbed in Colorado, but when the two forks 
are united in Lincoln county they make a river of re- 
spectable proportions, which flows through the heart of 
tlie State and furnishes water both from its surface flow 
and from its gravel bed. The Loup river further increases 
the irrigation facilities in the central counties. In the 
southwestern part of the State the Republican and its 
tributaries supply a number of quite extensive irrigation 
systems. Along the northwestern boundary the Niobra- 
ra, a noble stream, is beginning to be utilized. 

The conformation of the land in western Nebraska 
also offers more favorable oi)portunities for the storage 
of flood waters than are found in most of the prairie 
States. The possibility of irrigation from wells by means 
of pumps driven by windmills and by steam and gaso- 
line engines, are also being thoroughly tested, with hope- 
ful results. The experts of the Geological Survey report 
that even away from the river valleys, where the depth 
to water is considerable, small farms can be irrigated by 
this means at most points. This conservative authority es- 
timates that fully one million and a half of acres can be 
irrigated in western Nebraska. Local enthusiasts put 
the amount very much higher, but even the former fig- 
ure represents a reclaimed area three times greater than 

116 



THE REVOLUTION ON THE PLAINS 

that on which the wonderful agricultural industry of 
Utah has been developed. 

The Dakotas are comparatively well watered by surface 
streams, but they flow in deep channels, and the uniform 
slope of the land to the eastward is only about one foot 
to the mile. Under these conditions it is not practicable 
to divert the flow by gravity canals, though it is some- 
times done with the aid of pumping machinery. But 
the Dakotas rejoice in the possession of great artesian 
basins and of some of the largest flowing wells in the 
world. Many of them are one thousand feet in depth, 
and some of them furnish the remarkable flow of four 
thousand gallons per minute. Over sixteen hundred 
artesian wells were reported in these two States as early 
as 1891, and the number has constantly increased. The 
irrigation sentiment has been well organized and has re- 
sulted in the provision of progressive legislation. 

Texas was also a severe sufferer from drought through- 
out the western part of its vast territory. The greater 
portion of it is well watered by rivers, by large perennial 
springs, and by artesian wells second only to those of 
Dakota. Here the people have also responded witli high 
public spirit to the appeals of the irrigation champions, 
and the new era in the industrial life of the State is well 
under way. 

The actual amount of land that may be reclaimed and 
cultivated in the semi-arid region furnishes no measure 
of the value of irrigation to tliis vast district. By en- 
abling thousands to engage in farming, irrigation has 
made it possible to use the surrounding plains as the^ 
pasture for great numbers of beef cattle. In many in- 
stances small herds are owned by the farmers themselves, 

117 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

but to a large extent their crops are bought by those 
whose sole business is cattle-raising. Thus all the re- 
sources of the region are brought into use, and a Avonder- 
ful prosperity has followed as the logical result. 

From Canada to Mexico the revolution on the Great 
Plains is now in full tide. It is the most dramatic page 
in the history of American irrigation. It has saved an 
enormous district from lapsing into a condition of semi- 
barbarism. It has not only made human life secure, but 
revolutionized the industrial and social economy of the 
locality. 

To a considerable extent it has replaced the quarter- 
section with the small farm and the single crop with 
diversified cultivation. It has transformed the specu- 
lative instincts of the people into a spirit of sober in- 
dustrialism. It has raised the standard of living and 
improved the character of homes. It has planted the 
rose-bush and the pansies where only the sunflower cast 
its shadows, and it has twined the ivy and the honeysuckle 
over doors which formerly knew not the touch of beauty. 
It has made neighbors and society where once there were 
loneliness and heart-hunger. It has broken the chains 
of hopeless mortgages and crowned industry with inde- 
pendence. 



Ipatt ^b(r& 

UNDEVELOPED AMERICA 

" Mighty as has been our past, our resources have just been touched 
upon, and there is wealth beyond the Mississippi which, in the not 
distant future, will astonish even the dwellers on the shores of Lake 
Michigan. 

" From the time my eyes first rested on the great uncultivated 
plains which lie between the Mississippi and the Pacific Ocean, my 
wakening dreams have been filled with visions of the incalculable 
wealth which the touch of living water will bring to life from those 
voiceless deserts. There wealth only can produce wealth, and man, 
singly and alone, might as well try to subdue the Himalayas as to 
cope with these wastes ; but the hand of united and associated man 
is already reaching forth to grasp the great results. 

"The same power which wastes millions on the Mississippi can 
be utilized to make the desert blossom with the liomes of men, for 
whom and for all of us the now blighted soil will bring forth the 
fruits of the Garden of Eden." — Hon. Thomas B. Reed, in a 
speech at Pittsburg, 1894. 



CHAPTER I 

THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

California is widely celebrated, but little known. Its 
unique climate and productions, and the dramatic inci- 
dents of its early history, have been deeply impressed 
upon the poj^ular imagination wherever the name of the 
Republic is spoken. These circumstances have given it 
rank among the most famous of American States ; yet its 
problems and its future are inscrutable enigmas to all 
who have not studied the subject at close range, and to 
many who have. The anomaly that one of the States 
most talked of should be one of the least understood is 
not difficult to explain. 

In the first place, California is known not by what 
millions of people have seen, but by what millions have 
read. Europe is better known by contact to Americans 
than California. A prominent American orator recently 
*' discovered " California, and filled the newspapers with 
the interesting and suggestive impressions it had made 
upon his mind. He had been to Europe twenty times, and 
to the Pacific coast once, which is once of tener than many 
other distinguished travellers of the eastern seaboard. 

Still further, the Anglo-Saxon race is dealing with new 
conditions in California. Coming from dense forests, 
from a land of heavy rainfall, and from a temperate 

121 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

climate where winters are long and stern, it settled in 
treeless deserts, in a land of slight and peculiar rainfall, 
and under a sky that never knows the winter. 

Finally, California is in its infancy, having recently 
celebrated its forty-sixth birthday as an American com- 
monwealth. Born in a paroxysm of speculation — one of 
the wildest the world has seen — it has outlived a trying 
experience of lesser economic epilepsy, and come to the 
threshold of its true career strengthened and purified by 
the extraordinary process. In less than half a century 
several far-reaching changes have swept through the in- 
dustrial and social life of the State, swiftly altering the 
conditions of labor and of business. Even for those 
living in the midst of these events it has been difficult 
to read their significance and estimate their influence on 
the ultimate character of the place and people. 

What wonder, then, that to the outside world Cali- 
fornia has meantime appeared like a jumble of gold, 
palms, and oranges, of gilded millionaires and hopeless 
paupers, of enviable farmers living luxuriously on small 
sections of paradise, and of servile alien laborers herded 
in stifling tenements ? Such are the conflicting aspects 
of the Golden State to those who view it from afar. What 
are the facts ? 

The literature of California is prolific. Perhaps no 
other locality in the United States has been so often writ- 
ten about. In dealing with a place which presents so 
many strange and fascinating features it is easy for praise 
to become extravagance. This is now so well understood 
that it is commonly thought that the words '^ Cali- 
fornian " and '* veracity" are seldom synonymous. But 
the truth is that visitors from abroad have contributed 

123 



, ' THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

ratlier more than Calif oruians themselves to the popular 
impression of the State and its wonders. It is the fleet- 
ing tourist rather than the permanent resident who be- 
comes the more reckless partisan of the charming climate, 
the majestic scenery, and the vast resources which, to 
his exhilarated imagination, seem certain to burst into 
their full potentiality in the immediate future. 

Without doubt, the most influential books ever written 
about California were those of Mr. Charles Nordhoff. 
His California: for Health, Pleasure, and Residence 
(1873), and Nortliern California (1874), had a great 
vogue at the time of their publication, and for many years 
after. They are as fresh and readable to-day as when 
written, and it is easy to understand why they should 
have exercised so powerful an influence in making public 
opinion. Mr. Nordhoff should not be confounded with 
the superficial enthusiasts who study the country only 
from car-windows and the verandas of luxurious hotels. 
Addressing his books *' to travellers and settlers," he evi- 
dently realized the grave responsibility of the undertak- 
ing, and made a conscientious effort to describe the 
situation faithfully and conservatively. To keen observa- 
tion, and a clear, vivid, descriptive style, he added a 
shrewd common-sense, which enabled him to divine, with 
striking accuracy, several important economic facts 
which the residents themselves overlooked or ignored. 
He went thoroughly over and into the country, accepting 
no facts at second-hand which it was possible for him to 
verify by personal investigation. 

Nevertheless, he wrote as a tourist-correspondent, and 
is first among those of that class who have given Cali- 
fornia the place it holds in the popular imagination. 

123 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Looking back now to his studies and the deductions he 
drew from them, it is interesting to note how conditions 
have changed in twenty-five years, and to what extent 
his words of advice require revision before they can be 
offered to the settler of to-day. 

When Mr. Nordhoff wrote his books cattle and cattle- 
men were just beginning sullenly to recede before the 
rising tide of agriculturists in the great San Joaquin 
Valley. He correctly foretold the first effects of the in- 
dustrial revolution that would follow, predicting that the 
railroad and the public lands, and, later, the old Spanish 
grants, would be divided among farmers ; that the cattle 
would be compelled to seek the mountains for free range, 
and would come into the valleys only to be fattened upon 
alfalfa and other crops. But he foresaw only the first 
effects of these changes, and the farmer who should pro- 
ceed upon his advice to-day would certainly fail to j)rosper. 

Mr. Nordhoff championed the cause of the small far- 
mer against the great landowner, but his idea of a small 
farmer is widely different from the present significance of 
the term. He saw in the San Joaquin ** cheap farms for 
millions.'' These were to be acquired, either from the 
railroad or the government, in tracts ranging from one 
hundred and sixty to six hundred and forty acres. This 
was what he meant by *' small farms," and they were 
small, indeed, compared with the great ranches of thou- 
sands or tens of thousands of acres. But they were 
still of quite imperial dimensions compared with the 
unit of ten, twenty, or thirty acres which is now consid- 
ered amply sufficient for the settler's needs. 

While Mr. Nordhoff recognized the advantage of irri- 
gation, he did not appreciate its actual importance, nor 

124 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

did ho realize how largely it would increase the cost of 
land and how seriously it would influence the entire 
economic character of the country. He held out the 
hope of a prosperous living for families of small means 
who should settle upon farms of one hundred and sixty 
acres and upwards in the San Joaquin Valley, and de- 
pend chiefly upon crops that could be grown without 
irrigation. If "^Hhe millions" had accepted this advice 
in the past, or should do so to-day, nothing but disaster 
could result. Except in a few localities, prosperous 
agriculture in the San Joaquin Valley without irriga- 
tion is impossible. The character of the country is such 
that large and costly canal systems are required to bring 
any considerable portion of it under water. When these 
were built it was no longer possible to acquire cheap 
land, and the size of the practicable farm unit had been 
reduced to about one-tenth of the amount Mr. Nord- 
hofi advised. These developments changed the situa- 
tion completely. 

The enthusiastic author was by no means blind to the 
possibilities of horticulture, nor did he fail to foresee 
that when this had been established it could be success- 
fully pursued on much smaller areas. But here also his 
advice is now quite obsolete, and must be revised before 
it can again be offered to the public. He left the im- 
pression that oranges could be grown throughout south- 
ern California and the San Joaquin Valley. Later ex- 
perience has eliminated the dream of orange orchards 
from a vast portion of these localities, but has demon- 
strated that the industry is practicable in some places 
where it was formerly supposed to be out of the ques- 
tion. While tlic orange- tree will grow and generally 

125 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

bear fruit throughout the lower valleys, the area in 
which it can successfully be cultivated for commercial 
purposes is rather severely restricted. To grow a few 
orange-trees within the shelter of the house, and to pro- 
duce sufficient fruit for home purposes, is one thing ; 
to grow thousands of acres of oranges fit for the market, 
and thus develop a genuine citrus district, is entirely 
different. There is a well-recognized thermal belt in 
the foothills of the Sierras, bordering the San Joaquin 
and Sacramento valleys, but the conditions of the coun- 
try as a whole, with reference to this subject, have 
turned out to be very different from what they were 
supposed to be when Mr. Nordhoff wrote his books. In 
southern California his predictions in regard to orange 
culture have been largely realized, but even there it has 
been discovered that the field is limited. 

The author was not unnaturally led into the error 
of saying that *^ the seasons are a little later in the 
North" than in the South. The contrary is the case, 
strange as it may seem, for it is the northern fruit dis- 
tricts which send the earliest products to market. This 
is true of both deciduous and citrus fruits. In the case 
of the latter the difference is very striking, as the 
northern oranges are ready for the Thanksgiving mar- 
ket, while comparatively little of the southern crop is 
available for Christmas purposes. Both the raisin and 
the prune industries were beginning to assume import- 
ance in 1873. Mr. Nordhoff quoted raisins at '^ two dol- 
lars per box of twenty-five pounds," and added : '' I judge 
from the testimony of different persons that at seven 
cents per pound raisins will pay the farmer very well." 
To-day theyare quite content to obtain three cents. lie 

126 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

quoted prunes as bringing from twenty to twenty-two 
cents at wholesale at San Francisco, ''and even as high as 
thirty cents for best quality/' Prunes now bring from 
three to eight cents, and pay well at four and a half. 
Figs were then selling at from five to ten cents per pound, 
and the author thought they would be very profitable. 
The result has proved that while figs boar most prolific 
crops they arc not profitable, as Californians have not 
yet been able to cure and pack them successfully. There 
are exceptions to the rule, but this is true as a general 
statement, and the fig is not a profitable article of com- 
merce in California. In much the same way tobacco- 
culture failed and disappointed the liopes which had 
been built upon that industry. 

These are instances of many particulars in which even 
the most painstaking of works on California require re- 
vision in the light of experience. So, too, the public 
opinion which they helped to make must be revised. 
Mr. Nordhoif described California as it looked and as 
it seemed to promise in 1873. While his methods were 
conscientious, his tone was one of intense enthusiasm. 
His vision extended as far as any one's could do at that 
time. The fact is that at that stage of its history Cali- 
fornia had not begun to develoj) its real and enduring 
economic traits as it has done during the past few years. 
It had recently emerged from an era of wild speculation. 
It stood upon the verge of another, in which railroads 
and agriculture, rather than gold, were to be the prin- 
cipal factors. It is from the calm sea-level of these quiet 
days that the State may best take its bearings. Thus the 
time is ripe for a new study of what in many respects is 
the most wonderful of American States. 

•127 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

The great farmer of California is the successor of the 
gold-hunter. Both were speculators of the thoroughbred 
type ; both looked with contempt upon the matter of 
making a living, and dreamed only of making a fortune. 
Of homes and institutions they were neither architects 
nor builders, for they sought only to take the wealth 
from the soil and spend it elsewhere. The miner leaves 
nothing to commemorate the place where he gathered 
gold save crumbling hovels and empty tin cans. The 
five -thousand -acre wheat -farmer leaves no monument 
beyond fields of repulsive stubble and the shanties of 
his "hoboes." These social forces belong to barbarism 
rather than to civilization. 

Mr. Nordhoff clearly perceived" these things, and not 
only urged the importance of smaller farms, but that 
farmers should be encouraged to diversify their products 
and become independent on their own places. But the 
conditions were yet too favorable for speculation. Wheat 
commanded more than one dollar per bushel. Of the 
new products, such as raisins, prunes, and oranges, the 
output was slight, and the prices consequently high. 
The result was inevitable. The owners of large farms 
sought to buy more land and increase the scale of their 
operations. The new settlers acquired as much land as 
they could, while the growing class of horticulturists plant- 
ed their property exclusively to the few kinds of trees or 
vines which seemed most profitable at that time. Writing 
of this subject Mr. T. S. Van Dyke says : '^^Tlie general 
' principle upon which all farming was done, from the high- 
est to the lowest, was very nearly this : Do nothing your- 
sell: that you can hire any one else to do, make no machin- 
ery at home, and raise nothing to eat that you can buy." 

128 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

The rise of horticulture brought no material change 
in these conditions. As with^ the miner and wheat- 
farmer, so with the fruit-grower the aim was to get rich 
quickly, and the method speculation. Certain districts 
were devoted exclusively to prunes, others to wine grapes, 
others to raisins, and yet others to oranges. Fruit-land 
rose to almost fabulous prices, and was readily bought 
by those who had been taught to believe that they could 
re.dize profits ranging from one hundred to one thousand 
dollars per acre for certain crops. Exceptional instances 
justified this prediction, and everybody seemed to prefer 
to found expectations upon these instances rather than 
upon average returns. It is not difficult to understand 
why a man who counts upon an income of five to ten 
thousand dollars from ten acres, or double that amount 
from twenty acres, should turn his back upon common 
things, and devote his land exclusively to the crops 
which promise such gilded profits. 

This was the general policy, and it conferred great 
prosperity upon some classes, particularly the Chinese 
and Italian market-gardeners, who raised food for the 
gentlemen-farmers to eat. There were years, however, 
when the fruit of trees and vines brought very large re- 
turns. Wherever the policy of single crops is pursued, 
whether it be wheat, corn, or cotton, raisins, prunes, or 
oranges, there are occasional years of well-nigh riotous 
prosperity. But such years are frequently more disas- 
trous in their results than sober periods of depressiou. 
They feed the flame of speculation and raise false indus- 
trial ideals. Under the spell of such times, the people 
depart still further from the safe path of self-sufficient 
agriculture, buying more land to devote to the favorite 
I 129 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

crop, expanding their living expenses, and running into 
debt. Wiien this spirit becomes the breath of industry 
no human laws can avert disaster. 

A true industrial system is like a noble river fed by 
eternal snows: it never floods its banks with an exces- 
sive flow, and never sinks below its normal stage. It 
ebbs and flows with the regular tides of the great com- 
mercial ocean to which it is tributary, but alike at high 
water and at low, it bears the ships of men upon its tran- 
quil bosom. 

After a very intimate acquaintance with California 
horticulture, and with the army of producers who have 
engaged in it, Mr. Edward F. Adams, formerly mana- 
ger of the State Fruit Exchange, wrote as follows : 

"Unless certain reforms in the trade can be effected, 
there is danger that a large portion of the capital will be 
lost. The mortgage indebtedness is very serious ; the 
general depression in values has temporarily wiped out 
the equities of the nominal owners ; and while a partial 
recovery is doubtless to be expected in due time, it is 
not believed by the best informed that under present 
conditions of marketing, our orchards and vineyards 
can continue to maintain those who occupy them in their 
present standard of comfort. We are endeavoring by a 
general popular movement to remove the evils which op- 
press us.'' 

Notwithstanding such warnings as this, and the sore 
experience on which they are based, there are real-estate 
interests which still advertise the fabulous profits of 
California fruit-culture, and there are many who believe 
them and proceed to organize their farms in the old 

way. 

130 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

The evolutionary process of the last twenty years has 
wrought out some very valuable lessons for the future of 
California. It has demonstrated that irrigation is es- 
sential to the highest standard of civilization. The cen- 
sus of 1890 revealed the fact that two-thirds of the gain 
in rural population stood to the credit of eight counties 
wliere irrigation prevailed. The counties which rely 
upon rainfall had about reached a stand-still or scored a 
loss. The people have always been divided on the ques- 
tion as to whether irrigation is necessary. Those who 
oppose urge that it breeds mahiria and injures the qual- 
ity of the fruit. Those who favor insist that it is essen- 
tial to the most scientific agriculture, and to the main- 
tenance of dense population. The last twenty years 
have answered the question forever. The answer con- 
sists of a comparison between the South and the North. 
The one was born of the irrigation canal ; tlie other of 
the mining-camp and the wheat-ranch. The one is char- 
acterized by a high civilization ; the other by a low one. 

With a population estimated by Governor Budd, in 
1896, at less than one million and a quarter, California 
has a territory nearly as large as that of France. It is 
inferior to France neither in climate, soil, natural re- 
sources, nor sea-coast, and its capacity for sustaining a 
dense population is fully as great as that of the Eu- 
ropean republic. The latter supports more than thirty- 
eight millions. If, then, the comparatively few inhabi- 
tants of the California of to - day are not equally 
prosperous, it is because they have failed to make the 
best use of their opportunities. With the same rate of 
increase in the next century as in that of the immediate 
past, the United States will contain in 1996 a total pop- 

131 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ulation of over five hundred and eighty millions. Noth- 
ing is more certain than that California must receive its 
full share of these future millions. It seems hardly less 
certain that they will realize there the highest destiny 
of the race. But how? 

Notwithstanding the supreme attractions of its rural 
life, more than seventy-seven per cent, of California's 
total increase in the last decade covered by the national 
census settled in towns and cities. As a result, the ur- 
ban life of this far, new State is as badly congested as 
that of the old communities of the East. But the pos- 
sibilities of agriculture, of manufacture, and of mining 
are relatively untouched. Ultimate California remains 
to be fashioned from these undeveloped materials. The 
tendencies of future growth are revealed by the teaching 
of the past, and not less by its failures than by its suc- 
cesses — not less by the fury of old speculations than by 
the calm current of these saner times. 

The future tides of population in the Golden State 
must first spend their energy upon the soil. It is the 
creation of a new and ampler civilization that is involved, 
and agriculture must be its foundation. But if those 
now engaged in cultivating the soil can scarcely main- 
tain themselves, what hope is there for new recruits in 
the industry? The question is natural, but the answer 
is conclusive. There is no hope for them if they engage 
in speculation, but there is an absolute guaranty of a 
living and a competence, to be enjoyed under the most |, 
satisfying and ennobling social conditions, if they work 
upon sound industrial lines. These lines are clearly dis- 
closed by the light of past experience. 

Three classes of products should enter into the cal- 

132 



' THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA " 

dilations of the new settler in California : the things he 
consumes ; the things California now imports from east- 
ern States and foreign countries ; the things which east- 
ern communities consume, but can never hope to pro- 
duce, and of which California possesses virtually a 
monopoly. In the first list is almost everything which 
would appear in an elaborate dinner menu, from the 
course of olives to the course of oranges, nuts, and 
raisins, and excluding only the coffee. This policy of 
self-sustenance has been ignored to a startling degree in 
the mad struggle for riches, but the coming millions of 
farmers can be sure of a luxurious living only by stoop- 
ing to collect it from the soil. 

In the second list are many of the commonest articles 
of consumption, which California might readily produce 
at home, but for which it sends millions of dollars 
abroad each year. The imports of pork and its products 
range as high as eight or ten millions each year. Con- 
densed milk is not only a very important article of con- 
sumption in mining - camps and great ranches, but is 
largely shipped abroad for the Asiatic trade. It is 
brought across the continent from New Jersey. Cali- 
fornia also sends beyond its borders from twenty to 
twenty-five millions annually for the item of sugar, which 
should not only be produced in sufficient quantities to 
supply consumption, but for export as well. It is a 
curious fact that many of the finest fruit preserves sold 
in San Francisco bear French and Italian labels, and 
that the supply of canned sweet corn comes mostly from 
Maine. Essential oils made from the peelings of citrus 
fruits are also imported. It is not uncommon to find 
orange marmalade which has been prepared in Rochester, 

133 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

New York, the oranges having been shipped eastward, 
and the manufactured product westward, at the cost of 
two transcontinental freiglits. Imports are by no means 
confined to things which require capital and machinery 
for their manufacture. Chickens, turkeys, and eggs are 
largely brought from outside. A single commission- 
house in San Francisco imports five hundred thousand 
chickens every year. Thus a good many thousands of 
the new settlers can profitably be employed in feeding 
much of the present population of the State, which in- 
cludes a large proportion of those who are speculating on 
wheat and fruit, sheep, cattle, and hogs. 

Having made perfectly sure of his living, and disposed 
of his surplus for cash in the home market, the settler 
still has left a promising field in the list of things which 
nine-tenths of the American people consume but cannot 
produce. Among these products are oranges, lemons, 
and limes. F'lorida competition in this line has been 
temporarily destroyed, if not permanently injured. Mex- 
ico is, perhaps, a rising competitor ; but there is little 
reason to fear that California cannot hold its own against 
all foreign producers. Even more promising is the olive- 
culture ; for while the orange is an article of luxury, the 
olive must ultimately become here as elsewhere an im- 
portant article of food. Calif ornians are just beginning 
to pickle the ripe olives. The difference between a green 
olive and a ripe one is precisely the difference between a 
green and a ripe apple. In Spain the people subsist 
largely on olives — but not on green ones. All who have 
eaten the ripe fruit which is now being pickled in Cal- 
ifornia will agree that it is conservative to say that 
when the American public become acquainted with this 

134 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

product, its consumption will be enormously increased. 
This will be true, because in its new form the olive is as 
nutritious as it is palatable, and the people will learn to 
depend upon it as an article of diet. In the production 
of deciduous fruits, such as peaches, apricots, cherries, 
and nectarines, California has much competition, and is 
to have much more in the future. There are irrigated 
valleys throughout the Pacific Northwest, the inter- 
mountain region, and the now undeveloped Southwest, 
which are beginning to produce marvellous fruits of this 
kind. The same is true of olives, almonds, and walnuts 
in a much more restricted way. The California wine in- 
dustry is promising to-day, and the culture of grapes for 
this purpose profitable. Planters who depend for their 
entire income upon the cultivation of these export crops 
will necessarily suffer all the evils of speculative farm- 
ing, but those who have founded their industry upon the 
plan of self-sufficiency will always have a surplus income 
from this third source, and in years of high prices it will 
be large. It is thus that the agricultural basis of Cali- 
fornia will be indefinitely broadened in order to sustain 
future millions. 

Upon this foundation manufactures, mining, and an 
enlarged commerce will rest. The first cannot be long 
delayed. California will not permanently endure the 
enormous waste involved in shipping its wool and hides 
across the continent to Eastern mills, tanneries, and 
workshops, and in shipping back again the manufactured 
cloth and shoes. The factories must inevitably grow up 
near the raw material and the consumers. Expediency 
and the economy of nature alike demand it. This im- 
portant part of California's civilization remains almost 

135 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

wliolly to be developed. Its growth will open new av- 
enues for employment and new outlets for the products 
of the soil. 

The mining industry is also in its youth. To use a 
common phrase, but a true one, *' the surface of the 
ground has only been scratched." Old methods have 
been outlived, and the conditions of the industry are 
changing in vital ways ; but the work of taking gold and 
silver, copper, lead, and iron from the foot-hills and 
mountains of California has only been begun. The day 
of the individual miner, working with his pan in the 
gravel bed of the stream, is mostly passed. The conditions 
of hydraulic mining were materially altered by legisla- 
tion because of the injury done by polluting the rivers 
and filling their channels ; but quartz-mining is in a 
state of rapid development, and is destined to assume 
prodigious proportions. It will add untold millions to 
the wealth of the community, increasing the demand for 
labor and widening the markets of the farmer. 

Nature has unquestionably provided the foundation of 
a marvellous industrial life in which millions of people 
will finally participate. To-day these resources are un- 
developed. There is but one force that can awaken the 
sleeping potentialities into a manifold and fruitful life. 
That force is human labor. Looking down the years of 
the future, it is possible to predict, with the accuracy of 
mathematics, that human labor will coin from these va- 
cant valleys and rugged mountain-sides billions upon 
billions of money. The wealth to be so created will 
build many beautiful homes, capitalize banks, factories, 
and railroads, and send great steamships across the Pa- 
cific to foreign shores. To whom shall these things be- 

13G 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

long when labor has made them from tlic materials 
which nature provided ? Upon the answer to that ques- 
tion hang the destinies of California. 

The seed of the California of the past was in the little 
group of feverish gold-hunters who camped by Sutter's 
mill in 1849. It bore the gaudy weed of speculation, 
with its bitter harvest of misfortune and discontent for 
the many, accentuated only by the superfluous riches 
which it gave to the few. The seed of the California of 
the future is in the irrigation canals owned and admin- 
istered by small landed proprietors ; in the fruit ex- 
changes, wliich are supplanting the commission system 
and securing to the producer the rewards of his labor ; 
in the co - operative creameries and canning factories 
which, in the face of deficient capital and unfair compe- 
tition, are slowly fighting their way to the sure ground 
of abiding prosperity ; in the multitudinous and uni- 
formly successful manufacturing and mercantile associ- 
ations which Mormon genius has planted in the valleys 
of Utah ; in the banks, insurance companies, and loan 
and building societies which, all over the Union and all 
over the world, have vindicated the possibilities of asso- 
ciated man. 

It is interesting to consider what portions of California 
will receive the bulk of the future population. The 
topography of the State is peculiar and readily compre- 
hended. The coast region presents a frontage of over 
one thousand miles to the sea, and is narrowly hemmed 
in by mountain ranges which, in many places, come down 
to the shore itself. But in these mountains there are 
many picturesque and fertile valleys wliich have long 
been applied to agricultural purposes. The coast region 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

lias a climate of its own. It is the mildest type of the 
temperate zone, closel}^ verging upon the semi-tropical, 
but not adapted to the growth of citrus fruits. Here 
the rainfall is heavier than elsewhere in California, and 
proximity to the sea gives rise to frequent fogs. In the 
southern extremity of this region, from Santa Barbara 
to San Diego, the climate becomes genuinely semi- 
tropical and fogs are less common. North of San Fran- 
cisco the leading industries are lumbering, dairying, 
stock-raising, and general farming, with some mining. 
In a few favored valleys fruit-raising on small farms is 
successfully followed. South of San Franciso the lum- 
ber and mining interests are insignificant, and the coun- 
try is mostly devoted to dairy, stock, and general farming. 
A most notable exception to what has been said of the 
general condition of the coast region is the Santa Clara 
Valley, which contributes enormously to the exports of 
the State. In the beauty of its homes and orchards and 
the excellence of its horticultural methods, in the organ- 
ization of its fruit exchanges, and the character of its 
urban life and civic institutions, the Santa Clara Valley 
is fully equal to the most ideal localities in California, 
not even excepting the famous orange districts near Los 
Angeles. There are numerous opportunities in counties 
farther south, notably in Monterey, San Luis Obispo, 
and Santa Barbara, to apply the same methods with 
similar results. But while the Santa Clara Valley rep- 
resents the finest possibilities of the coast region, it 
also strikingly illustrates certain failings in the econom- 
ic system of the State which have been dwelt upon in 
earlier pages. Land is almost exclusively devoted to 
fruit. Farmers buy their milk, butter, eggs, poultry, 

138 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

bacon, and fresli meats of others. They themselves pro- 
duce none of the real necessities of life, but only the 
luxuries. One reason for this is the lack of irrigation. 
They have taught themselves to believe that this is not 
only unnecessary, but would actually be injurious to the 
quality of their fruit. They are learning gradually, 
however, that this idea is erroneous — that skilful and 
proper irrigation is always beneficial, and that artificial 
moisture is imperatively necessary to diversified produc- 
tion ; hence, to the highest business prosperity and best 
social conditions. When this lesson is learned by the 
coast region as a whole a new era will set in, and great 
numbers of colonists will come. 

What is popularly known as southern California is a 
narrowly restricted district reaching eastward from Los 
Angeles for about one hundred miles and southward to 
San Diego. Like the coast region, its character is fixed, 
though on widely different lines. Its population is al- 
ready comparatively dense, and its future growth will be 
measured by the water supply for irrigation. While it 
would seem as if the v>^ater resources had been fully 
utilized, the fact is that large quantities run to waste in 
seasons of flood, and that the cultivable area can be 
gradually extended by storage works and more economi- 
cal methods of irrigation. 

It is an impressive fact that the seven counties of the 
south received sixty - one per cent, of the increase of 
rural population between 1880 and 1890. This marvel- 
lous showing was chiefly due to the superior public spirit 
of the locality, and to the attractive institutions which 
grew out of it. Los Angeles itself is the throbbing 
heart of a region which, in many respects, has no equal 

139 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

in the world. The leading characteristics of this locali- 
ty have been referred to in another chapter. But the 
very success which attended these methods in the past 
place limitations upon the country as a field for future 
expansion. Land values have risen high, and the water 
supply has become almost as precious as gold. Health- 
seekers and the leisure class have been attracted in large 
numbers, and occupy the field which would otherwise 
be open to home-makers of smaller means. A class of 
wealthy people is a prominent feature of immigration 
in the southern valley. These opulent settlers plant 
orchards of oranges, lemons, and olives, just as their 
poorer neighbors do. It is reassuring to reflect, how- 
ever, that they can accomplish little more with their 
abundant capital than humbler settlers may do with 
their united labor. The sun, the sky, the earth, and the 
waters will be as kind to one class as to the other. 
While it should not be inferred that none but the very 
rich can settle in the south, it is perfectly true that this 
charming district is not within the field of the largest 
future developments. 

A district known as Antelope Valley is one of the later 
developments of southern California. This lies north of 
the Sierra Madre mountains, on the southern margin of 
the Mojave Desert. Irrigation has here begun to evolve 
orchards, fields, and beautiful homes from conditions 
which, in their virgin state, were peculiarly forbidding. 
A series of promising colonies, chiefly engaged in almond- 
culture, have been successfully established. But the 
amount of land that can be reclaimed in this locality is 
severely limited by the scanty water supply. 

Where, then, is the field to accommodate the hosts 

140 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

who will come when the population of California begins 
to approximate that of France ? It lies principally in 
four great and distinct bodies, which may be named, in 
the order of their importance, as follows : the Sacra- 
mento Valle^^ stretching north from the Bay of San 
Francisco to the feet of snowy Shasta ; the San Joaquin 
Valley, reaching south from the great bay to the place 
where the two mountain - ranges meet at the pass of 
Tehachapi; the intermountain valleys on the eastern 
slope of the Sierra, extending over the boundary into 
Nevada; and the Colorado Desert, in the extreme south- 
eastern part of the State, on the borders of Mexico. 

The first of these, the valley of the Sacramento, re- 
ceived an addition of only two thousand to its rural pop- 
ulation, out of a total of nearly ninety-seven thousand 
for the State, between 1880 and 1890. The fault lay 
neither with the soil nor the climate, which are equal to 
those of any part of California, but with economic con- 
ditions. The country is held in vast estates, principally 
devoted to the cultivation of grain, which has been a 
losing industry for several years. Where horticulture 
has been adopted it has frequently been done upon a 
great scale. The vast orchards and vineyards of Mrs. 
Stanford, of General Bidwell, and of A. T. Hatch are 
striking instances of this tendency. When General N. 
P. Chipman, himself a distinguished resident of the 
Sacramento Valle}^, called attention to the startling rev- 
elations contained in the census figures, the matter was 
widely discussed, but with little result. The public 
spirit which has given the southern counties their splen- 
did place in the life of the Pacific coast is distinctly 
lacking in the north. The truth is that it cannot be 

141 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

cnltivated on wheat-fields or in mining-camps. It comes 
with irrigation, with the subdivision of the land into 
thousands of diminutive holdings, with a citizenship 
composed of a multitude of small proprietors. 

These conditions are exactly reversed in the northern 
valley, with pitiful results. The same forces would 
make the same civilization in both localities, for the 
physical foundation is practically identical. The south- 
ern valley lies open to the sea, the breezes from which 
mercifully temper the summer heat. In other respects 
the advantages are all on the side of the Sacramento. 
It is far greater in area ; its water supplies are both more 
abundant and more reliable; its surrounding advantages, 
notably in the way of mines and timber, are much supe- 
rior. Finall}^ it possesses the inestimable blessing of a 
mighty river, navigable for a distance of two hundred 
miles, and capable of being much improved. This is a 
factor of the highest import. It furnishes cheap trans- 
portation by boat, and materially lessens railroad charges. 
Furthermore, it gives the valley a comprehensive system 
of drainage from Shasta to the sea. The wonderful min- 
eral riches of this locality will be rapidly developed. 
They are by no means confined to gold, but include a 
variety of natural riches. What has proven to be one of 
the greatest copper-mines in the world has recently been 
opened in Shasta county, with the aid of British capital- 
ists. It is from the foot-hills on the eastern side of the 
Sacramento Valley that the earliest oranges and lemons 
seek the market. They command high prices, and are 
mostly sold on the coast from San Francisco to British 
Columbia. It is in this imperial valley, and in the foot- 
hills and mountains which rise above it in splendid pict- 

142 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

ures on each side, that a large proportion of the future 
millions will find homes and prosperity. 

Irrigation is by no means absolutely necessary in the 
Sacramento Valley. If it had been, the story of its set- 
tlement and industrial progress would be different from 
what it is. No one could then truthfully assert, as now, 
that this splendid district contains less population than 
it had twenty-five years ago. Producing fair crops of 
grain and of deciduous fruits without artificial moisture, 
the countrj'" has been given over to large ranches and 
scattered orchards and wholly deprived of the powerful 
social in5uences which lent such distinction to the civil- 
ization of southern California. While irrigation is not 
indispensable in the north, it is essential to the best and 
highest results, especially in the line of small-farming. 
The rainless season usually extends from May until No- 
vember. Without irrigation there can be no beautiful 
lawns, successive crops of vegetables and small fruits, or 
goodly yields of alfalfa. One acre under reliable irriga- 
tion is more valuable, for the purpose of small, diversi- 
fied farming, than ten acres without it. The citrus fruits 
cannot profitably be cultivated except by irrigation, and 
there is no fruit which is not improved, both in quality 
and quantity, by the proper application of water. This 
claim is often stoutly disputed, particularly by those 
wishing to sell land that cannot be irrigated. But ex- 
perience has taught that northern California can only 
hope to equal the southern part of the State by imitating 
its industrial methods, of which irrigation is the foremost. 
The San Joaquin Valley is even larger, and in many 
respects resembles its northern sister. Indeed, the con- 
ditions of soil, climate, and productions are so nearly 

143 



TUE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

identical that they need not be rehearsed. Here irriga- 
tion and the small farm had begun to make themselves 
felt, and the single county of Fresno gained more than 
five times as much in population in the last census dec- 
ade as the entire Sacramento Valley. Perhaps the earliest 
triumph of the new woman in this generation was that of 
Miss Austin and her three associates — all school-teachers 
of San Francisco — who founded the wonderful Fresno 
raisin industry. Investing their savings in a ranch, and 
then boldly venturing upon a culture in which few had 
faith, they demonstrated that raisins equal to those of 
Spain could be produced in the San Joaquin. They were 
rewarded with handsome profits, and later thousands of 
people shared in the benefits of their demonstration. 
But speculation and the fallacy of the single crop fol- 
lowed as natural consequences, bringing hard times, 
mortgages, and disappointment in their train. In the 
mean time unskilful irrigation without proper drainage 
wrought harm in various ways. All of these misfortunes 
are being overcome, but it is not easy for the great valley 
to undo the injury which its reputation has suffered in 
the last few years. Nevertheless, the country of the San 
Joaquin contains great possibilities, and will sustain a 
dense population. Its contiguous mountains are richly 
endowed with mines and great timber, as well as with 
the sublimest scenery. Among its valuable resources are 
artesian wells of large size, so situated as to be available 
for use in irrigation. 

The valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin have 
been, and are yet, the grain-fields of the Pacific coast. 
Many of their residents have bemoaned the fall in the 
price of wheat as the greatest of calamities. The truth 

144 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

is that for California it is tlie first of blessings. The 
fall in wheat prices has broken the land monopoly which 
kept labor servile and gave the most fruitful of coun- 
tries to four-footed beasts rather than to men. Not until 
nearly all great ranches had been mortgaged to their 
full capacity, not until the failure of prices had made 
the debts intolerably burdensome and brought their 
owners face to face with disaster, was it possible to 
open the country for its best and highest uses. With 
the supremacy of wheat will go the shanty and the 
^Miobo"" laborer, to be followed in time by the China- 
man. In their places will come the home and the man 
who works for himself. Civilization will bloom where 
barbarism has blighted the land. There are localities 
where the cultivation of grain can be pursued, but the 
semi-tropical valleys of California were plainly intended 
for better things. 

Irrigation, drainage, and cheap transportation are close- 
ly related as economic problems in the great interior val- 
leys. William Hammond Hall, the former State engineer, 
has predicted that within fifty years the waters which rise 
in the mountains and meander through these valleys to 
the sea will all be utilized to moisten and fertilize the 
soil, and then be turned into canals, serving the double 
purpose of drainage and transportation. He claims that 
it is feasible, from an engineering stand-point, to con- 
struct such works, and to propel trains of freight-boats 
by electricity at a speed of six miles an hour. If this 
shall be done, the gain to the State will be beyond all 
calculation, provided the works be owned by the public. 
It is by no means an idle dream when considered in con- 
nection with ultimate California. 
K 145 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

The third field for future development is a vast region 
lying upon the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. This 
is so little known to the outside world that it may almost 
be named as Undiscovered California. It is reached 
only by lines of narrow-gauge railway running northwest 
and southwest, respectively, from Reno, Nevada. The 
northerly district is included in the three great coun- 
ties of Plumas, Lassen, and Modoc. The country is 
distinctly arid, lying upon the western flank of the great 
basin formed by the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch ranges, 
which inclose portions of California, Idaho, and Utah, and 
all of Nevada. Here we find the real sage-brush desert — 
fertile, well-watered valleys surrounded by all the wealth 
of forest, mine, and natural pastures. The climate ap- 
I)roximates much more nearly to that of New Mexico 
than to that commonly associated with the name of Cali- 
fornia. It is of the milder type of the temperate zone, 
favorable to the growth of such hardy fruits as apples, 
pears, peaches, and prunes. Up to this time, however, 
the chief products of the country are native and alfalfa 
hay, cattle, sheep, and horses. The sparse population 
is, perhaps, as prosperous as any farming community in 
the United States. This fact is mostly due to the vast 
extent of fine grazing lands surrounding irrigated valleys 
and to the herds of cattle and sheep which find their way 
to the farmers' hay-stacks from the ranges of northern 
California, southern Oregon, and western Nevada every 
autumn and winter. 

The most important district in this region is Honey 
Lake Valley, lying eighty miles northwest of Reno. Here 
a new era has set in with water-storage for irrigation, 
small farms, and colonies planned upon the best ideals. 

146 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

Cheap land, valuable surrounding resources, and a cli- 
mate similar to that in which our race has flourished 
best, would seem to combine in favoring a large and 
raj)id future growth. 

The more southern body east of the Sierras lies chiefly 
in Inyo county. This is also at the early stage of de- 
velopment. The climate is milder, though still temper- 
ate rather than semi-tropical, than in the more northern 
counties. There are many beautiful valleys and an 
abundance of water, timber, and minerals. 

Lack of railroad facilities and remoteness from large 
cities account for the backwardness of development in 
these attractive regions on the eastern slope of the moun- 
tains. They present to-day the finest field for develoj)- 
ment in California, and one of the finest in the Uni- 
ted States. There can be no question that during the 
next century they will become the homes of hundreds of 
thousands of people and the seat of a manifold industrial 
life. 

The fourth field open to future conquest is the Colo- 
rado Desert — most famous of waste-places in America. It 
is popularly regarded as an empire of hopeless sterility, 
the silence of which will never be broken by the voices 
of men. As the transcontinental traveller views it from 
his flying train it presents an aspect indeed forbidding. 
Neither animal life nor human habitation breaks its level 
monotony. It stretches from mountain-range to moun- 
tain-range, a brown waste of dry and barren soil. And 
yet it only awaits the touch of water and of labor to 
awaken into opulent life. Only the most superficial view 
of it is caught from the passing trains, while those who 
have penetrated into its heart and across the boundary 

147 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

into Mexico compose but a slender list of prospectors, 
linnters, surveyors, and curious travellers. But some of 
these have made careful studies, and this really wonder- 
ful country is beginning to attract the attention of both 
capitalists and settlers, though the former must do their 
work before the latter can hope to occupy the land. 

Much time will be required to overcome the wide and 
ingrained public prejudice against the Colorado Desert, 
but it will finally be reclaimed and sustain tens of thou- 
sands of prosperous people. It is more like Syria than 
any other part of the United States, and the daring im- 
agination may readily conceive that here a new Damas- 
cus will arise more beautiful than that of old. 

With the occuption of the Colorado Desert and of the 
great peninsula which adjoins it, a powerful impulse will 
be given to agriculture, mining, and commerce in a vast 
region now little peopled. One of the inevitable conse- 
quences will be the rise of San Diego to the proportions 
of a large city — probably the largest in the southern part 
of the coast. 

The future of California will be very different from its 
past. It has been the land of large things — of large es- 
tates, of large enterprises, of large fortunes. Under an- 
other form of government it would have developed a 
feudal system, with a landed aristocracy resting on a 
basis of servile labor. These were its plain tendencies 
years ago, when somebody coined the epigram, "Cali- 
fornia is the rich man's paradise and the poor man's 
hell." But later developments have shown that what- 
ever of paradise the Golden State can offer to the rich, it 
will share, upon terms of marvellous equality, with the 
middle classes of American life. Over and above all other 

148 



THE TRUTH ABOUT CALIFORNIA 

countries, it is destined to be the land of the common 
l^eople. This is true, because, owing to its peculiar cli- 
matic conditions, it requires less land to sustain a family 
in generous comfort. For the same reason, cheaper cloth- 
ing and shelter, as well as less fuel, suffice, while it is pos- 
sible to realize more perfectly the ideal of producing what 
is consumed. Moreover, it is a natural field for the ap- 
plication of associative industry and the growth of the 
highest social conditions. Indeed, the country has dis- 
tinctly failed as a land of big things, and achieved its 
best successes in the opposite direction. Its true and 
final greatness will consist of the aggregate of small 
things — of small estates, of small enterprises, of small 
fortunes. Progress towards this end is already well be- 
gun. It must go on until the last great estate is dis- 
membered and the last alien serf is returned to the 
Orient. Upon the ruins of the old system a better civili- 
zation will arise. It will be the glory of the common 
people, to whose labor and genius it will owe its exist- 
ence. Its outreaching and beneficent influence will bo 
felt throughout the world. 



CHAPTER II 
THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

The old day in Colorado was the era of frontier bar- 
barism. The glitter of Pike's Peak gold drew throngs 
of adventurous folk who toiled across the plains of Kan- 
sas and Nebraska in wagon-trains that they might spec- 
ulate in the mysterious possibilities of a new country. 
They were not home-builders, but fortune-hunters. 
Wherever they found placer gold rude settlements sprang 
up. 

In the mean time the cattle industry began to contend 
with Indians and buffalo for the possession of the grazing 
lands which sloped away from the Rockies, and the neces- 
sity of a base of supplies planted the seeds of a few per- 
manent towns, such as Denver and Pueblo. These were 
mere clusters of rude homes and stores which seemed to 
hold out scant promise of future importance. The In- 
dians were numerous and troublesome, and the life of 
the pioneers was spiced with danger. Though the coun- 
try belonged nominally to Kansas, there was but the 
slightest pretence of civil government. Practically the 
only authority was that exercised by organizations of cit- 
izens, who brought horse-thieves and murderers to speedy 
justice upon the most convenient tree. 

In 1861 Colorado became a Territory, and was then 

150 



THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

able to deal more effectively with the Indian, who was 
the common enemy and an obstacle to settlement and 
development. There was little in these early conditions 
to encourage the hope that a great and populous State 
could be established amid the mountains and plateaus. 
Mines, cattle, and border traffic were not alone sufficient 
for the making of civilization. Beyond these crude in- 
dustries the future was speculative. The country was 
unexplored, the resources undeveloped, the conditions 
untried. The transformation which swiftly followed 
upon this period of doubt converted the frontier commu- 
nity into one of the most brilliant and promising of 
American States. 

The dawn of the new day was heralded by the whistle 
of the locomotive. The dissolution of the Union armies 
had turned the faces of many thousand veterans towards 
the trans-Missouri region, and of these Colorado re- 
ceived its full share. The wonderful era of railroad- 
building — perhaps the most dramatic page in all our in- 
dustrial history — had just begun. These circumstances 
conspired to give a new and powerful impulse to the ter- 
ritory at the base of the Eocky Mountains. Large cap- 
ital joined hands with the increasing stream of immi- 
grants, and Colorado entered with amazing vigor upon a 
stage of real and far-reaching development. More im- 
portant than the finding of gold was the discovery of 
the fact that the highest forms of agriculture would 
flourish with the aid of irrigation. When this had been 
demonstrated by the pioneers there was no longer doubt 
about the future greatness of the State or the character 
of its civilization. Denver and a few other settlements 
began to take on the appearance of permanency, and 

151 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

I 

even to exhibit the signs of coming refinement and 
power. 

The settlers of G-reeley inaugurated large irrigation 
enterprises and planted seeds from which the finest civic 
institutions were to grow. General William J. Palmer 
and his friends, anticipating the commercial value of cli- 
mate and scenery even b^efore the industrial economy of 
the community was established, laid out Colorado Springs, 
at the foot of Pike's Peak, and began to make Manitou 
and the Garden of the Gods ready for future thousands 
of health-seekers and tourists. Pueblo quickly felt the 
importance of its position on the banks of the Arkan- 
sas at the gateway of the mountains, and developed rap- 
idly in population and business. The daring conception 
of a railroad to parallel the Rockies and open communi- 
cation with Mexico, or to scale the giant peaks and 
penetrate the wilderness which lay beyond, took posses- 
sion of General Palmer's mind and furnished the hope 
of further extraordinary developments. 

Thus the decade between 1870 and 1880 saw the rise 
of Colorado to a place of immense promise and of im- 
portant achievement, and in 1876 the nation signalized 
the centennial of the Declaration of Independence by be- 
stowing the rich privilege of sovereignty upon the new- 
born commonwealth. 

The Colorado of to-day contains a population of a 
little less than half a million. It is marvellously fort- 
unate in its railroad development, having twenty-four 
separate lines, which maintain over five thousand miles 
of track, penetrating nearly every part of the State. Its 
mines of precious and base metals — very largely the 
former — yield an annual income of nearly fifty millions. 

152 



THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

Its two million acres of irrigated land add forty millions 
more to the annual industrial product. Although man- 
ufactures are in their infancy, they even now produce 
goods to the value of thirty-five millions. Other busi- 
ness transactions, represented by the commercial and 
professional classes, represent considerably more than 
one hundred millions each year. The live-stock indus- 
try is difficult to estimate, but adds very largely to the 
yearly production of wealth. 

Such are the results wrought out by the labor of a 
single generation upon the raw resources of a new State. 
Before glancing at the people Avho have organized such 
an economic life in so brief a space of years, and at the 
institutions they have created, it is important to con- 
sider the material foundation on which they have built. 

Colorado owes something to its scenery, much to its 
climate, yet more to its mines. The first of these made 
it widely known as one of nature's wonderlands. The 
second was a prime factor in attracting population. 
The third poured a large and continuous stream of 
wealth into the hands of the people, and a little further 
on we shall see how loyally this has been used for the 
benefit of the State. The grandeur of the scenery and 
the charm of the climate are both matters of popular 
knowledge. Neither is peculiar to Colorado, for both 
are characteristic of the arid region as a whole. But 
nowhere else do the ordinary paths of travel lead 
through so grand a scenic region as in Colorado, nor has 
any other locality been as fortunate in the energy and 
intelligence bestowed upon the work of making this 
phase of its attractions widely and favorably known. 

The Colorado climate is the product of high altitude 

153 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

and aridity. Denver is one mile above the level of New 
York harbor, and much of the inhabited portion of the 
State is even higher. The result is a rarefied atmos- 
phere very exhilarating in its effects and extre«iiely 
favorable to persons suffering with certain kinds of dis- 
eases. Summer and winter are almost equally de- 
lightful, though presenting great extremes of heat and 
cold. 

Of the mineral wealth it is needless to say more than 
that it increases its annual output with regularity, and 
that there is every reason to suppose that much the 
greater part of it yet remains to be discovered and de- 
veloped. It will be a permanent resource of the highest 
utility, since most of it is directly converted into money 
at the local mints. While the energies of the mining 
industry are chiefly centred upon the search for precious 
metals, the country is endowed with the greatest variety 
of mineral riches. These include nearly all the base 
metals, such as copper, lead, and iron, as well as coal, oil, 
precious and semi -precious stones, granite, marble, 
onyx, and sandstone. These materials exist in the great- 
est profusion, but must lie mostly unused until the pop- 
ulation largely increases. 

In considering the matter of agricultural development, 
it must be remembered that Colorado is the crown of 
the continent. Its lofty mountain-peaks cut the rain- 
fall and melting snows in twain, sending one part to the 
Pacific and the other to the Atlantic Ocean. The same 
influence makes a radical division in climate, produc- 
tions, and the character of agriculture. Irrigation devel- 
opment naturally began earliest where streams could 
most easily be diverted. This was on the high plateau 

154 



THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

which slopes eastward from the foot-hills and merges into 
the Great Plains of Nebraska and Kansas. 

For a period of nearly twenty years, beginning in 
1870, canal construction and the settlement of lands 
were actively carried on in this part of the State. The 
scene of action was principally in the valleys of the 
Cache la Poudre, the Platte, and the Arkansas. Here the 
farms are of large size for an irrigated region, though 
the present tendency favors a smaller unit. These dis- 
tricts, prosperous in ordinary times, have not escaped 
the evil effects of the general depression in recent years. 
The products are diversified and largely disposed of in 
the home market. In the upper Arkansas Valley, where 
the foot-hills furnish shelter from the high winds pre- 
vailing at certain seasons, fruit-culture has been notably 
successful. Prices of unimproved lands on the eastern 
slope range from twenty to fifty dollars per acre, while 
cultivated lands are valued at one hundred dollars an 
acre and upwards, according to the extent of improve- 
ments and location with reference to cities or large 
towns. The glimpse we have had in an earlier chapter 
of the agricultural industry of Greeley Colony may be 
accepted as true of the entire region east of the moun- 
tains, for Greeley has been the model to which other 
districts have looked for inspiration. The experimental 
farms which surround the agricultural college at Fort 
Collins undoubtedly represent the highest type of irri- 
gation results in this part of the State. In the Arkansas 
Valley the altitude is lower and the climate more favor- 
able for small farming and fruit-culture. 

The San Luis Valley is an elevated plateau lying be- 
tween parallel mountain - ranges in the southern and 

155 



THE CONQUEST OF AKID AMERICA 

central part of the State. Here a vast expenditure lias 
been made for irrigation works, but efforts at settlement 
have been almost uniformly disappointing. The expla- 
nation is found in the altitude, which is from seven thou- 
sand to eight thousand feet above sea-level. This makes 
short seasons and limits the farmer's industry to the 
hardiest class of crops. There is no month in the year 
when frost is not likely to occur; yet the country makes 
a wonderful yield of grain, of vegetables, and frequently 
of small fruits. There are instances of great prosperity 
on the j)art of individual settlers, but as a whole the 
valley shows a record of failure for those who have at- 
tempted to make homes there. A striking example to 
the contrary is seen in a few thriving communities of 
Mormons. The industrial system which we have already 
studied in connection with Utali produces the same good 
results in the San Luis Valley. In view of this fact it 
must be assumed that the locality will eventually be 
settled and sustain thousands of prosperous people. 
Land and water may be obtained more cheaply here than 
anywhere else in Colorado, and there is a good market 
for the products of the soil. The costly preliminary 
work of reclamation has been well done in advance. A 
labor colony, founded upon wise plans, backed by suffi- 
cient capital, and inspired and managed by skilful lead- 
ership, would solve the problem of colonization for the 
San Luis Valley, while furnishing work and homes for 
those who need them. The Mormon communities are 
practically of this character in the beginning. 

The western slope of Colorado constitutes a region 
entirely distinct. From a casual glance at the map it 
would be inferred that about two-thirds of the State con- 

156 



THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

sist exclusively of mountains, iind are therefore unfitted 
for settlement. The truth is that there are many beau- 
tiful valleys of varying size and elevation, and that these 
are destined to sustain the most interesting and profit- 
able agricultural districts of Colorado. Unlike the east- 
ern slope, there is here more water than irrigable land — 
a condition almost unique in the arid region. The val- 
leys are so protected by the mountains which inclose 
them upon either hand as to have a climate of their own. 
This is perceptibly influenced by the warm winds which 
make their way from the Gulf of California through the 
canyons of the Colorado river. These conditions are 
extremely favorable for the culture of the most delicate 
fruit and for the diversification of general crops. The 
principal rivers of the western slope are the Grand, the 
Green, and the San Juan. These are fed by the prolific 
snows of the higher Rockies, and carry a strong and tur- 
bulent fiow of water throughout the year. They are not 
always readily diverted, however, as their channels have 
been deeply cut through the rocks and soil, and the 
stream often flows below the level of the tract to be irri- 
gated. This makes it necessary to elevate the water in 
many instances by pumping machinery, which can be 
operated cheaply by the power of the stream itself, or 
by the use of coal, which in many cases is found close at 
hand. 

The best example of the possibilities of the western 
slope is seen in the neighborhood of Grand Junction, 
where two splendid streams — the Grand and the Gunni- 
son — join forces and flow westward to their meeting with 
the Green river across the Utah boundary. Here the 
valley opens out into a broad desert, with foot-hills, or 

157 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

mesas, marking the rise to the mountain masses which 
line the horizon on either hand. To the eye of the 
traveller who has just come through the awe-inspiring- 
scenery of the mountains and narrow upper valleys, 
nothing could be less promising than the brown waste of 
arid soil which he beholds upon approaching Grand 
Junction. The scene is one of utter desolation, for even 
sage-brush and mesquite are absent from large portions 
of the landscape. The roaring river hurrying down the 
slope seems to mock, with hoarse laughter, the unfruitful 
soil, which stretches away from its banks in silence and 
in sunshine. But if the traveller leaves the train and 
rides out a few miles upon tlie desert he will quickly in- 
terpret the mystery of these conditions. Wherever the 
water has been married to the soil, prolific fields and 
orchards have sprung from the union — such fields and 
orchards as may be rivalled as yet only in semi-tropic 
California. The favorite size of farms is from ten to 
twenty acres, or only about one-fourth or one-eighth of 
the average area of farms on the eastern slope of Col- 
orado. 

Fruit-culture chiefly claims the thought and energy 
of the people in this locality, and it is very profitable. 
Peaches are the leading product, and they are wonderful 
for flavor, size, and beauty. A local festival is *^ Peach 
Day/' when people come from all directions to feast 
upon the free bounty of Grand Junction. Lands are held 
high, ranging from fifty to one hundred and fifty dollars 
per acre, though they were but recently public property 
and of no value until irrigation facilities had been pro- 
vided. The excuse for these high prices is the fact that 
orchards in bearing frequently earn one hundred and fifty 

158 



THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

dollars and upwards per acre each year. This is due in 
part to the marvellous quality of the fruit, and in part 
to the extensive home markets offered by mining camps 
in the mountains, and by large towns such as Denver, 
Pueblo, and Colorado Springs. In view of the severe 
limitations which nature has placed upon the territory 
suited to the highest culture of delicate fruits, and of the 
steady growth of the consumers in mountain districts 
and large towns, there is, perhaps, good reason to hope 
that profits will be well sustained for a long time to 
come. 

These conditions make the western slope choice ground 
for settlement. They are by no means limited to the 
lower valley of the Grand, but exist in the numerous 
smaller districts scattered through the mountains in the 
western and southwestern part of the State. On the so- 
cial side the possibilities of the country have not been 
much developed, as there has been a lack of organized 
effort in settlement. But the extraordinary fertility of 
the soil, the extent of the water sujoply, the proximity of 
mining camps, and the charm of the climate must some- 
time combine to lend a powerful impulse to the highest 
development of these favored valleys. 

The scenery presents not merely pictures, but pictures 
that are painted and tinted and wrought into fantastic 
shapes. To the ever-changing aspect which the moun- 
tains, buttes, and mesas gain from light and shadow, from 
sun and cloud, new and strange beauties are added by the 
reds, pinks, yellows, and grays of soil and rock. From 
the vivid cliffs and bluffs which stand guard upon river 
banks to the purple and shadowy peaks which lift their 
pointed heads on the utmost horizon, the scene is one of 

159 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

such beauty and grandeur as may be felt, though not de- 
scribed. 

Such are the materials of Colorado. Let us look now 
at the people and their civilization. 

Intense local patriotism is a well-recognized western 
trait, but in Colorado it amounts to a religion. We 
have seen how the progress of California was impeded 
by certain elements of its population having no sym- 
pathy with its higher ideals, no pride in its best achieve- 
ments. If there is such an element in Colorado it is 
unseen and unfelt in the larger life of the State. The 
community is dominated by a spirit of aggressive enter- 
prise which recognizes no impossibilities, harbors no 
doubts* of the future. This is the explanation of 
what we may fairly call — in view of the brief time con- 
sumed in its evolution from conditions essentially bar- 
baric — the splendor of Colorado civilization. It is this 
which created Denver, almost the fairest of American 
cities; which made Colorado Springs the centre of 
wealth and refinement; which blackened the sky of Pu- 
eblo with the smoke of a young Pittsburg; which 
planted Leadville among the clouds ; which placed a 
steam ladder against the dizzy summit of Pike's Peak ; 
which carried the iron highway of commerce through 
gorges and mountain - passes ; which turned rivers out 
of their courses that barren soil might blossom with 
the homes of men. This high public spirit is seen in 
schools, colleges, clubs, public buildings, and improve- 
ments — above all, in the homes. 

It has been the policy of those who have taken riches 
from the mines to invest them in developing tlie State's 
resources and in beautifying its cities and towns. In this 

160 



THE NEW DAY IN COLOKADO 

respect the spirit of Coloradans presents a sharp con- 
trast to that of many who grew rich in California, and 
of most of those who received the enormous wealth coined 
from the resources of Nevada. In the latter instance 
the beneficiaries of the mines did not even make their 
homes in the land which raised them from poverty to afflu- 
ence. But the men of Colorado have been proud of 
their devotion to the commonwealth which they created, 
and have striven by every means in their power to keep 
it moving along the upward path. In the erection of 
fine public and business buildings and of palatial homes, 
in the extension of railroads and irrigation canals, in the 
increase of banking capital, and, above all, in the pursuit 
of daring mining operations, their enterprise has been un- 
equalled by that of any other western community. Fore- 
most among those who inaugurated this policy at the 
risk of their fortunes was the late H. A. W. Tabor, 
whom Denver and Colorado should always hold in grate- 
ful remembrance. 

But there is another side to the picture. The tenden- 
cies of Colorado civilization are not wholly in line with 
the best ideals of the arid region. Viewed from this 
stand-point, its institutions are in a measure disappoint- 
ing. The marvel of Denver's growth and the beauty 
of its homes and business districts should not blind us 
to the fact that it is essentially like the great cities of 
the East. It is, in a word, another case of '^ progress 
and poverty." The equality which marked its early life 
has diminished in proportion to the growth of the popu- 
lation and the increase of wealth. The rise of land 
values has made it more diificult for the many to own 
their homes, and has increased the wealth of the land- 
L 161 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AxMERICA 

lord class. All the evils which grow from the condi- 
tions of life in a large city are rife in Denver. 

These are not the natural economic tendencies of a 
country founded upon irrigation. They are not such as 
we have observed in localities where irrigation has been 
so nearly the dominant influence as to shape institu- 
tions. The explanation is found in the influence of 
mining speculations which, diffused like the atmos- 
phere, breed a cheerful but demoralizing contagion : 
also in the early tendency to adopt a comparatively 
large farm unit. These two forces have operated to 
produce very different results from those flowing from 
the Mormon land policy, which we saw in the Salt Lake 
Valley ; or from those which grew in consequence of irri- 
gation in the San Bernardino Valley of California. Large 
portions of Colorado are admirably adapted to the de- 
velopment of the best social conditions — of those condi- 
tions which make for a permanent and growing body of 
landed proprietors ; for the multiplication of little towns 
rather than a concentration of people in congested cen- 
tres ; for the application of the associative principle in 
connection with industrial and commercial affairs. It 
is gratifying to be able to record that the latter cur- 
rents of thought in Colorado seem to show the effects 
which might be expected to result from its environ- 
ment. 

More and more the State asserts its authority in the 
control of irrigation works and practice. The farm unit 
grows smaller, and intensive cultivation finds more fol- 
lowers. By enormous majorities the people pronounce 
in favor of party platforms which demand the public 
ownership of public utilities. Equal suffrage and the 

162 



THE NEW DAY IN COLORADO 

presence of women in the legislature mark the progres- 
sive temper of the body politic. On the whole, there is 
much reason to hope that the social achievement of the 
next generation in Colorado will be equal to the material 
achievement of the last. 



CHAPTER in 

THE PLEASANT LAND OF UTAH 

The industrial system of the people who compose 
three-fourths of the population of Utah has been con- 
sidered in connection with typical institutions of the 
arid region in earlier pages. It remains to speak of the 
physical aspects of the newest of American States. 

Standing on the summit of Capitol Hill in Salt Lake 
City, one may take in the entire range of Utah's re- 
sources, developed and undeveloped, in a single sweeping 
glance. 

At one's feet lies the mountain metropolis, with the 
stately temple of native granite supporting the golden 
figure of the Angel Moroni on its culminating turret, 
and beside it the odd-roofed tabernacle, like an enormous 
turtle basking in the sun. Below, the miles of city 
streets stretch southward — a huddle of business blocks 
in the centre ; a series of garden-homes hidden by leaves 
and blossoms on either hand. Still farther out the 
generous city lots expand into little farms of ten or 
twenty acres, exemplifying the prosperous irrigation in- 
dustry, which is the corner-stone of the commonwealth. 
Far down the valley the smelters send up their black 
smoke to the sky — emblem of the mining industry. At 
the lower end and on the sides of the valley lies an ex- 

164 



THE PLEASANT LAND OF UTAH 

pause of arid land in its natural desert state, typifying 
alike the conditions encountered by the pioneers and 
the present aspect of a vast proportion of Utah. On 
the left, one sees hastening down the canyon the roaring 
creek which watered the first crop ever planted in these 
valleys; on the right, the glistening expanse of the 
famous inland sea. And inclosing all, the mountains — 
treasure-house of precious metals, of coal, of iron, of 
timber, and of the snows and waters which fertilized the 
desert and made it blossom with civilization. 

Here in a single picture is all of Utah — town and 
country, farm, workshop, mine, shrines of religion, and 
play-grounds of wealth and leisure. If the human eye 
might look beyond the brown barriers, which now inter- 
cept the view, to the very boundaries of the State, 
it would see nothing more than it sees from Capitol 
Hill, for Utah is a succession of mountains, of desert 
valleys, and of crystal streams, and scattered over it all is 
the wealth of the mine and the sleeping potentiality — 
here and there partially awakened — of the home, the 
field, the orchard, and the workshop. It is a pleasant 
and a sunny land, unf orgotten by the most casual traveller 
who has crossed it and well loved by those who claim it 
as their home. It is easy to understand the feelings of 
the little Utah boy who tired of the World's Fair in a 
very few days and begged, with tears in his eyes, to be 
taken back. Asked if there were not plenty of interest- 
ing sights in Chicago, he replied, "Yes, but I can't see 
no mountains !" 

Utah has a population of about a quarter of a million. 
Though this is but one-half as many as Colorado, and 
one-fifth as many as California, the new State approaches 

165 



THE CONQUES^T OF AUIB AMERICA 

more nearly to the ideal of a self-sui^porting community 
than either of its neighbors. The bulk of its population 
has been trained in the policy of industrial independence 
from the time of its earliest settlement. We have seen 
how this was accomplished with little capital except that 
which was taken from the soil. The fortunate results 
may now be observed in an industrial life which is re- 
markably diversified for a community so new and remote. 

Very much the larger portion of the poj^ulation may be 
seen in a railroad ride of two hours, from Provo through 
Salt Lake City to Ogden. This ride takes the traveller 
through Utah, Salt Lake, and Weber valleys, which were 
the first to be reclaimed, and must always contain the 
densest population. The original advantage of this now 
splendid district was its abund ant water su2:>ply, flowing 
in numerous streams from high mountains near at hand. 
To this advantage later development added the presence 
of important railroad system sand the proximity of rich 
mines of precious metals. The grow^th of other portions 
of the State, which must be large and constant, can only 
confirm the supremacy of the communities which have 
grown up near the shores of the Great Salt Lake. These 
are alike tlie commercial, political, and religious centres 
of Utah, to which all the sources of material wealth must 
be tributary. 

The natural resources of LTtah, as in the case of all the 
States of the mountain region, are wonderfully diverse, 
though in the infancy of development. The annual out- 
put of gold, silver, copper, and lead is now about ten 
million dollars, and is constantly increasing. The min- 
ing industry is thus a large contributor to local wealth, 
supplying employment to thousands of laborers, furnish- 



THE TLEASANT LAND OF UTAH 

ing a home market for the products of the farms, and 
giving constant encouragement to the extension of the 
railroad system. The work of discovery and develop- 
ment in new districts steadily progresses, and the eco- 
nomic value of mineral resources must grow with every 
passing year. Utah is somewhat deficient in forests 
suitable for timber, but is abundantly endowed with coal, 
iron, and water-power, which are the raw materials of 
manufacture. The development of water-power in con- 
nection with electricity has begun in earnest and will be 
a factor of high importance in the future. This is ac- 
complished by damming streams which flow through 
mountain canyons in the immediate neighborhood of 
large towns. This requires the transmission of electric- 
ity for a distance of only a few miles, owing to the fortu- 
nate natural conditions. The State is also rich in fine 
building stone, which includes beautiful marble and 
onyx. 

The climate of Utah is that of the milder temperate 
zone, and during large portions of the year is thoroughly 
deliglitful. Ploughing begins earlier than in eastern lo- 
calities of similar latitude. The spring days are showery 
and windy, but the first warm breath of approaching 
summer is usually felt by the last of April. From May 
until November there is little rain. The thermometer 
climbs high during the summer days, but the heat is not 
oppressive, owing to the dryness of the air. Mountain 
breezes, sweeping down through the numerous canyons, 
make the nights delightfully cool. In Utah it is the 
custom to run irrigation waters through the streets of 
cities and towns during the summer, and the music of 
these numerous babbling streams is a pleasant feature 

167 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

of the country, and apparently of considerable effect in 
mitigating the heat. The long autumn, extending fre- 
quently into December, is the most charming season of 
the year. The winter is usually brief, but accompanied 
by considerable snow even in the valleys and a very 
heavy precipitation in the surrounding mountains. On 
still nights the thermometer sometimes goes well below 
zero. The extreme southern portion of the State, loc- 
ally known as " Dixie," is much milder, indeed verg- 
ing upon the semi-tropical, and permitting the culture 
of figs, almonds, and English walnuts. 

The agricultural industry of Utah presents some odd 
contradictions. It is more diversified, and therefore 
more completely self-sustaining, than that of any other 
western State. Farms are smaller and less incumbered 
with mortgages, and the people may be said to live gen- 
erally in easier circumstances than the occupants of the 
soil in any other part of the United States. 

On the other hand, it is not here that wo find the best 
methods of irrigation and cultivation, nor of packing and 
marketing the crops. The high intelligence and persis- 
tent effort which placed certain communities in Colorado 
and California at the head of the list in their respective 
lines of production are wanting in Utah. The fruit pos- 
sibilities of the country have been especially neglected 
until recently, so that newly settled portions of Idaho 
have easily surpassed Utah localities which had the ad- 
vantage of more than a generation in time. Of late 
years there has been a marked improvement, resulting 
from a State Board of Horticulture, from the influence 
of the Agricultural College at Logan, and from the in- 
fusion of a considerable element of new settlers. 

168 



THE PLEASANT LAND OF UTAH 

Not far from half a million acres of irrigated land are 
in actual cultivation, while nearly twice that number are 
under canals now completed or in process of construc- 
tion. Nearly one hundred thousand acres are cultivated 
in grain crops without irrigation. These are mostly sit- 
uated north of the Great Salt Lake, where the rainfall 
is heaviest. The total amount of cultivated land is, 
Iiowever, only about one per cent, of the area of the 
State. According to the best local authorities, some- 
tliing like six times as much land as is now irrigated 
can be brought under cultivation by these methods when 
the water supply is utilized. Here is a large field for 
the growth of population. 

The territory available for settlement is well dis- 
tributed throughout the State. The country immedi- 
ately surrounding the three large towns of Ogden, Salt 
Lake, and Provo is compactly settled, yet better meth- 
ods of utilizing the water supply will enlarge the area of 
cultivation even in those districts. The beautiful coun- 
try lying immediately north of Great Salt Lake, and 
watered by one of the largest irrigation systems in the 
AYest, is still largely open to settlement. Here the fruit 
industry is rapidly developing in connection with gen- 
eral farming and stock-raising. In this locality unim- 
proved lands sell for prices ranging from thirty to fifty 
dollars per acre, while the annual water - rental is two 
dollars and a half per acre. The construction of new 
irrigation systems in the large deserts south of the lake, 
in central Utah, has been actively carried on during the 
past five years. Here much government land is open to 
entry, but the settler must purchase Avater-rights from 
canal companies. This item of cost should be added to 

169 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

the price of the land. In this locality nnimproved lands 
with water cost from ten to thirty dollars per acre. The 
raising of grain and hay is j)rofitable because of the de- 
mand which the stock industry furnishes for these pro- 
ducts, while the culture of peaches, apricots, apples, 
and prunes seems promising. These fruits have been 
raised successfully for forty years in the more sheltered 
valleys and foot-hills of central Utah, and the later or- 
chards are being gradually extended farther out upon 
the desert. 

A promising region now almost wholly undeveloped is 
the Uinta country, surrounded by the mountains of that 
name and lying directly east of Salt Lake City. Here a 
great Indian reservation will soon be opened to settle- 
ment, and plans have already been made to reclaim and 
colonize the most attractive parts of the district. This 
will be done by the Mormon methods, which have been so 
successfully applied throughout the intermountain re- 
gion. Settlers will be organized into companies con- 
structing their own canals by combined labor and di- 
viding the farms and village lots under an equitable 
arrangement. Thus the land will cost the government 
price of one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre, plus a 
certain amount of labor in making improvements. The 
Uinta country is rich, not only in agricultural land, but 
in minerals, timber, building-stone, asphalt, and other 
useful resources. It is now remote from railroads, but 
its settlement and development must inevitably lead to 
the construction of the iron highway. The deserts in 
eastern Utah within reach of the Green river, and in 
southern Utah in the neighborhood of the Colorado and 
Virgin rivers, have but begun to feel the influence of 

170 



THE PLEASANT LAND OF UTAH 

modern -enterj^rise. The costly works necessary to their 
reclamation will doubtless come as the pressure of settle- 
ment increases. 

Utah's pre-eminence in the land of irrigation is due to 
historical considerations rather than to the excellence of 
its canal systems or to the superiority of its laws and 
customs. In the latter respect it is distinctly disappoiitt- 
ing. The pioneers turned the water from the most con- 
venient streams by the crudest devices, and with no 
thought for any grand and enduring scheme of engineer- 
ing. Canals were often duplicated many times over in a 
single valley, wasting precious water, injuring the soil, 
and unnecessarily restricting the area of settlement. The 
evils of the irrigation system hastily constructed by the 
pioneers are now seen and felt ; yet the early appropri- 
ators of the mountain streams are so tenacious of what 
they consider their rights as to render the reform of the 
laws, the reconstruction of canals, and the readjustment 
of irrigation customs to meet the conditions imposed by 
the pressure of population, extremely difficult. Efforts 
to establish a plan of State supervision which would pro- 
vide for the measuring of water and its just aj^portion- 
ment among irrigators — a system which is the first and 
last essential of peace and progress in an arid land — have 
been repeatedly frustrated by the unreasoning jealousy 
of the older settlers. This has occurred in spite of the 
fact that the best local authority asserts that at least 
seventy per cent, of the water supply is wasted under 
present methods. 

For fully forty years Utah irrigation was held in the 
hands of small local companies composed exclusively of 
the land-owners. Works were built by the common labor 

171 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA ^ 

of the community, and the repairs and improvements 
made in the same way. The first important departure 
from this policy came with the construction of the bold 
and expensive canals of the Bear River Irrigation Com- 
pany, which have reclaimed a large area lying between 
the Great Salt Lake and the Idaho boundary. These 
woffks also supply domestic water to the city of Ogden 
and furnish power for electrical purposes. The Bear 
river canal is one of the most notable works of en- 
gineering in the United States, ranking at least second, 
if not first, among irrigation systems in this respect. 
Not far from two million dollars of eastern and foreign 
capital is invested in the enterprise. The work ex- 
hibits almost every phase of irrigation — engineering, 
including canals cut into solid canyon walls, tun- 
nelled through mountain sides, as well as iron flumes 
and notable diverting dams. Other private water sys- 
tems followed the Bear river development. The most 
important of these are the storage enterprises at 
Mount Nebo and in the neighborhood of Sevier lake. 
Both of these utilize the flood waters of the Sevier 
river, which is one of the largest streams in the 
State. 

No other community in the West will deal with more 
interesting irrigation problems in the future than Utah. 
The conflicts between the policies of public and private 
ownership cannot be avoided, since both are represented 
in systems which lie side by side. In districts where 
settlement is furthest advanced and canal systems the 
oldest, the crying necessity for the reconstruction of 
works and the application of a rigid public supervision 
must soon be answered. Coincident with the settle- 

172 



THE PLEASANT LAND OF UTAH 

ment of these questions will be the gradual evolution of 
better agricultural and horticultural methods. The 
next decade will inevitably see significant developments 
in connection with the most important feature of Utah's 
economic foundation. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE CRUDE STRENGTH OP IDAHO 

Two travellers crossing Idaho on the same day, one by 
the Northern Pacific and the other by the Oregon Short 
Line, would receive quite opposite impressions of the 
country. The one who had traversed its northern end 
would think of Idaho as a land of dense forests mir- 
rored in the surfaces of beautiful lakes, of narrow val- 
leys presenting but meagre scope for agriculture, of 
abundant verdure, and of Alpine scenery. These condi- 
tions suggest nothing except the lumber-camp, the mine, 
and the stock-range. 

The traveller who crossed the southern part of the 
State, on the other hand, would receive the impression 
of an arid land, with wide stretches of valley and plain 
covered with wild grasses or sage-brush, alternating with 
curious formations of rock and lava. This traveller 
would understand how a large agricultural population 
may be maintained by turning the abundant water of the 
streams upon the rich valley soils. Both of these im- 
pressions of the resources of the great inland State of 
the Pacific North Avest would be true, but either of them 
taken alone, as is often done by travellers, would be 
quite inadequate. The fact is that Idaho, perhaps even 
more than other localities in the Far West, presents a 

174 



THE CRUDE STRENGTH OF IDAHO 

marvellous diversity of soil, of climate, and of natural 
endowments. This diversity must necessarily mark its 
future industrial life and be reflected in the social side 
of its civilization. 

The first important item in the material wealth of 
Idaho is its water supply. Along its eastern boundary 
nature has piled up towering mountain-ranges, which re- 
ceive an enormous snowfall. These mountains are cov- 
ered with forests, ranking among the most magnificent 
in the world, which treasure the snow within their som- 
bre depths until the warm weather gradually sends it 
down to streams which reach out through hundreds of 
miles of lower valleys. The great river of Idaho is the 
Snake, which deserves a better name in sj)ite of its tortu- 
ous meanderings. This is the largest tributary of the 
Columbia, and drains a vast water-shed, beginning in the 
Yellowstone Park of Wyoming and including all of 
southern and much of western Idaho with eastern Ore- 
gon and Washington. Along its course it receives nu- 
merous minor streams which drain interior mountain sys- 
tems. The Snake is nearly one thousand miles long and 
so deep that in some places soundings of two hundred 
and forty feet have failed to find the bottom. While 
incalculably valuable for irrigation, this is by no means 
its only utility. It is navigable for one hundred and fifty 
miles above its junction with Clarke's Fork in the north- 
ern part of the State, and may sometime furnish a 
water route to the Pacific Ocean through the Columbia. 
It also has immense possibilities in the way of power, 
which must some day be harnessed to electricity, moving 
passengers and freight through the valleys, and perhaps 
furnishing both light and heat to thousands of homes. 

175 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

The most marvellous of these water-powers is furnished 
by the Great Shoshone Falls, in the south-central por- 
tion of the State. Here is a waterfall scarcely inferior 
in power and grandeur to Niagara, and, like the latter, 
destined to be an important economic factor in the re- 
gion within its reach. The abundant water supply is 
by no means limited to the splendid valleys in the 
southern part of the State. It is found in hundreds 
of mountain streams throughout the central portion, and, 
in the narrow district which tapers northward to tlic Brit- 
ish Columbia line, is so marked a feature of the land- 
scape as to impress the most casual observer. Here 
Clarke's Fork of the Columbia, draining the Bitter Root 
mountains in western Montana, is a stream of noble 
proportions. Lakes Pend Oreille and CcBur d'Alene 
are among the most notable of inland waters, both in 
beauty and extent. But these northern streams will not 
be used extensively for irrigation, as there is consider- 
able rainfall and comparatively little agricultural land. 
They are valuable, however, in connection with mining, 
lumbering, and water-power. 

The forest area of Idaho includes seven million acres, 
and the principal native trees are fir, spruce of the 
white, red, and black varieties, scrub oak, yellow and 
white pine, mountain mahogany, juniper, tamarack, 
birch, Cottonwood, alder, and willow. Some of the 
large forest regions, notably that of the Pend d'Oreille 
in the north, are almost unexplored, and constitute the 
wildest parts of the continent. Naturally, a country so 
well wooded and watered is the home of fish and game 
of the rarest kinds. The mineral resources are well dis- 
tributed and diversified to the last degree. The annual 

176 



THE CRUDE STRENGTH OF IDAHO 

output of precious metals varies from eight to eighteen 
millions, though the industry is yet in its infancy. 
Base metals, precious stones, and building material, in- 
cluding fine marble, exist in abundance. 

Idaho lies wholly in the temperate zone, yet its climate 
presents a great variety of features. In the larger pro- 
portion of its territory, vv^hich consists of mountains and 
elevated vallevs, the winter is a season of considerable 
severity. Here the thermometer registers far below 
zero, though the days are rendered comfortable by dry 
atmosphere and abundant sunshine. In these higher al- 
titudes, however, production is limited to hardy crops, 
and runs largely to hay and grain, which finds a market 
in the mining and lumbering camps and at the hands of 
stockmen. 

Southern and western Idaho are entirely different from 
the eastern, central, and northern districts. The alti- 
tude ranges from two thousand to four thousand feet, 
and the climate admits of the production of delicate 
fruits. In much of the Snake River Valley, and still 
more notably in the numerous smaller valleys which 
open into it, small farming and fruit-growing will as- 
sume great proportions. Here the densest population 
will be maintained and the finest institutions developed. 
Typical districts of this sort are the valleys of the Boise, 
of the Payette, and of the Weiser. 

The most famous product of these charming districts 
is the prune. The prunes of southern Idaho were 
awarded the first prize at the World's Fair in 1893. Ap- 
ples are also a most profitable crop. Twenty-three varie- 
ties of Idaho apples surprised the eastern pomologists at 
the Exposition. Professor L. II. Bailey, the horticult- 
M 177 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ural expert of Cornell University, recorded the fact that 
the yellow Newtown pippin '*is twice as large as the same 
apple grown in the Hudson River Valley''^ of New York. 
Such delicate fruits as apricots, peaches, and nectarines, 
are successfully grown in the lower valleys of southern 
Idaho. 

AVhilc there arc occasional instances of a temperature 
twelve degrees below zero, the winter in this part of the 
State is really short and mild, being influenced by the 
Chinook winds, which make their way from the Pacific 
over a distance of five hundred miles. Spring opens early 
and is apt to be windy. The summer temperature is 
high, though the nights are invariably cool. The almost 
complete absence of rain between spring and late autumn 
makes the best conditions for irrigation, though it also 
involves dry roads and clouds of dust when the wind is 
high. Of the healthfulness of Idaho it is enough to say 
that it shows the smallest percentage of deaths of any 
State or Territory in the Union. This is not only the 
official record of the population as a whole, but it is the 
showing of the army statistics, wliicli furnish a better 
test, because the conditions of life in that service are re- 
markably even throughout the country. 

The greatest irrigation development has occurred in the 
upper Snake River Valley in the neighborhood of Idaho 
Falls. Hero over four hundred thousand acres of land 
have been watered at a cost of more than a million dol- 
lars. Tlie chief crops are grain and alfalfa, the former 
yielding from sixty to eighty bushels, the latter from 
seven to ten tons per acre. Land sells for from twenty to 
fifty dollars per acre with perpetual water-rights. The 
large canals are owned by private companies and rcp- 

^ 178 



THE CRUDE STRENGTH OF IDAHO 

resent eastern capital. Large private canals have also 
been constructed in the lower valleys, the products of 
which have already been referred to. These are in south- 
western Idaho near the border of Oregon. Land is usually 
more costly here than in the upper country, owing to the 
more favorable climatic conditions and the better oppor- 
tunities for small-farming. Prices range from forty to 
one hundred dollars per acre as a rule. Farther down 
on the Snake, in what is known as the '^Lewiston Coun- 
try," land which has recently been reclaimed from the 
desert is held at one hundred dollars per acre. It is ex- 
pected that a choice fruit district will be developed in 
this locality, and cherries are put forward as the favorite 
crop. 

While the chief agricultural and horticultural districts 
lie along the Snake river and its important tributaries, 
the mountains of central Idaho are full of picturesque, 
well-watered valleys. In some of these settlement has 
been made for a generation, and the products are sold in 
surrounding mining towns and stock ranches. The IsTcz 
Perce Indian reservation is also a fertile and promising 
country, though the Indians have been located in sever- 
alty on some of the most desirable lands which would 
otherwise be open to settlers. A considerable locality in 
the northern part of the State, known as the *'Palouse 
Country," is farmed in grain without irrigation. The 
same is true of the Cammas Prairie, in one of the central 
counties. But Idaho is substantially an arid region, 
and its characteristic institutions are growing up where 
irrigation has been supplied. The ultimate develop- 
ment of its diversified resources v/ill give it a many-sided 
economic life. 

179 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

'' The Baby State " is a title conferred upon Idaho by 
its World^s Fair Commissioner, Captain James M. Wells, 
in his official report. While it is not the latest acces- 
sion to the Union, nor the smallest in population, there 
is a certain element of just characterization in the 
name, though it can be but temporary. The impression 
which Idaho makes upon the observer is that of crude, 
undeveloped strength. Utah is newer to statehood, 
Nevada and Wyoming smaller in population, yet Idaho 
seems more like a lusty infant than either of these. It 
is such in the fact that its character is less fixed, and 
that, the current of population which is to make its en- 
during institutions has but begun to flow in upon the 
fertile valleys which will dominate its life, because of 
their capacity to sustain dense communities. 

Already there have been four periods in the history of 
Idaho. The first was that of the explorer, when Lewis 
and Clarke, and later Bonneville, came to look over the 
country and report upon its possibilities. The second 
was that of the trapper, when the Hudson Bay Company 
established its supremacy after a brief struggle with 
American hunters. The third was that of the mission- 
ary, who established the first feeble beginnings of civ- 
ilization, then pushed westward for the historic conquest 
of Oregon. The fourth was that of the miner, who 
gained a lasting foothold in the mountains and along 
the streams. The fifth era is now in progress, and has 
been, after a fashion, since the early sixties. This is the 
era of agricultural settlement and of town-building. It 
amounted to little until the railways were built across 
the northern and southern extremities of the State, and 
until enterprise was attracted by the possibilities of irriga- 

180 



THE CRUDE STRENGTH OF IDAHO 

tion. It is only in recent years that home-building, in 
the better sense of the term, has been seriously begun 
in Idaho. All that went before was mere adventure, 
whether inspired by religious zeal, by lust of gold, or by 
the passion for national conquest. 

The most notable colony yet made on the irrigated 
lands of Idaho is that of New Plymouth, in the Payette 
Valley, twelve miles from the town of Payette. This 
colony, organized in the spring of 1895 by William E. 
Smythe and Benjamin P. Shawhan, was intended to 
represent a high social and industrial ideal. The initial 
work of enlisting settlers and public interest for the un- 
dertaking was done at Boston, with the aid of Dr. Ed- 
ward Everett Hale and other prominent men, but most 
of the actual colonists were from Chicago and the mid- 
dle West. The pioneers of New Plymouth, who repre- 
sented a rather unusual quality of settlers, were drawn 
principally from urban business and professional life, 
yet entered enthusiastically and successfully upon the 
work of making homes on sage-brush lands twelve miles 
from a railroad, in a remote and undeveloped part of 
the West. 

The Plymouth industrial programme aimed at com- 
plete economic independence of the people by the simple 
method of producing the variety of things consumed, on 
small, diversified farms ; of having surplus products, 
principally fruit, for sale in home and eastern markets ; 
and by combining the capital of the settlers, by incor- 
poration of a stock company, to own and develop the 
town-site, and to erect and operate simple industries re- 
quired in connection with products of the soil. On the* 
social side the plan aimed to give these farmers the best 

181 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

advantages of town life, or at least of neigliborbood as- 
sociation. This was accomiDlished by assembling the 
houses in a central village, laid out, in accordance with 
a beautiful plan, with residences grouped on an out- 
side circle touching the farms at all points. This plan 
brought the settlers close together on acre-lots — ^'home- 
acres" — thus preventing isolation, and giving them the 
benefit of school, church, post-office, store, library, and 
entertainments. 

The Plymouth settlers have been contented and pros- 
perous from the first, and have had less than the usual 
share of early trials and disappointments. They testify 
that the social advantages of the colony plan, as com- 
pared with the drawbacks of individual and isolated set- 
tlement, are alone sufficient to warrant its use. 

Each of the early sources of Idaho's growth left its 
driftwood along the slender stream of the State's devel- 
opment. The '' old-timer" is an influential element in 
its citizenship. Later comers, perhaps forgetting the 
distance which has been covered since the days of the 
primeval wilderness, and, in their impatience for prog- 
ress, belittling the hardy heroism which made it pos- 
sible, sometimes complain that the '^old-timers" are con- 
tent to live in the memory of ''the early days" while 
contributing little, either of enthusiasm or capital, to 
further development. The obvious truth is that differ- 
ent classes of people are required for different classes of 
work. If the men who filled the role of pioneers are 
not well suited by taste and temperament to solve the 
problems involved in the evolution of a complex indus- 
trial life, it is doubtless equally true that the element 
which enters enthusiastically and intelligently upon this 

183 



THE CRUDE STRENGTH OF IDAHO 

later work would not have dealt as succcssfnlly with the 
harsher conditions of thirty years ago. It is true, how- 
ever, that there are two well-defined classes in the citi- 
zenship of Idaho, and that they represent different ways 
of thinking. The steady growth of population must 
soon give the supremacy to those who are trying to put 
the farm in the place of the desert, to develop the best 
methods of fruit - culture, to bring the irrigation sys- 
tem under rigid j^ublic supervision, and to establish the 
highest standards in political and social life. 

Boise City, the capital and commercial centre of Idaho, 
is somewhat smaller than the chief city of any other 
western State. It is a beautiful town, on the river of the 
same name, and is the seat of considerable wealth and of 
growing refinement. In the long summer season it is 
almost hidden among its trees, for the pioneers planted 
liberally in this comfortable home-spot which they had 
prepared for their old age. 

The business and public buildings of Boise, as well as 
many of its private residences, are examples of the best 
modern architecture. The valley above the city has 
been reclaimed by irrigation and is being gradually peo- 
pled by small farmers. It is a fruit district of great 
])romise, and in time must become one of the most pop- 
ulous and beautiful valleys in the arid region. 

The other important towns of the southern part of 
the State are Idaho Falls, Pocatello, Mountain Home, 
Caldwell, Nampa, Payette, and Weiser. Most of these 
are small, but important in view of the certain develop- 
ment of the rich country which surrounds them. Lewis- 
ton, in the north, lies in the heart of a fine territory, and 
is the trading point for the Nez Perce Indian reservation. 

183 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Moscow is still farther north, and owes its prominence 
to the presence of tho State university. Besides these 
there are scores of important mining towns scattered 
throughout the mountains, but mostly away from the 
railroads. In town-building, as in tho development of 
all its other resources, Idaho has barely crossed the 
threshold of its vast possibilities. 



CHAPTER V 

ARID WASHINGTON AND OREGON 

To speak of Washington and Oregon as belonging to 
the arid region is to challenge popular belief, which re- 
gards these as lands of extensive rainfall. Even in the 
Far West it is customary to speak of Oregonians as 
^' Webfeet," on account of the dampness of their cli- 
mate. The fact is that there is rain enough in Oregon, 
as there is wealth enough in New York, but that it is 
not well distributed. 

The annual precipitation along the coast of these 
States ranges from sixty to one hundred and twenty 
inches, and is the heaviest in the United States. In 
the Puget Sound region, which is cut off from the coast- 
line by a range of mountains, the rainfall is less, but 
still so heavy as to make the climate distinctly humid. 
The bulk of settlement has been in the extreme west, 
and this fact accounts for the reputation of the country 
as one of excessive rainfall. Nevertheless, about two- 
thirds of these great States belong indisputably to the 
arid region, and can only sustain a dense population 
with the aid of irrigation. The singular contrast pre- 
sented by such marked climatic differences is due to the 
Cascade mountains, which form a barrier running north 
and south, intercepting the moisture from the Pacific 

185 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Ocean and decreeing that the western third of these 
States shall liave too much rain, wliile the eastern two- 
thirds shall have too little. 

The humid coast region is comparatively well settled 
and in a condition of flourishing development. Port- 
land, one of the most substantial of American cities, is 
sustained by the trade of the interior, by manufactures 
using the power of the Willamette river, and by a 
growing commerce moved by raih'oads and shipping. 
The cities of Paget Sound are younger and less firmly 
established. While it is impossible that all of them 
shall realize their early dreams of greatness, Seattle and 
Tacoma have passed beyond the period of doubt, and 
are clearly destined to be populous and powerful. The 
Washington coast is marvellously rich in forests, which 
creep down to the very edge of the Sound, and in other 
forms of natural wealth which will contribute to the up- 
building of manufactures and commerce. The growth 
of centres of population between the Cascades and the 
sea will have an important relation to the prosperity of 
the much larger regions east of the mountains. 

Not all of eastern Washington is worthless for agricult- 
ure without irrigation. Largo areas of rolling land arc 
farmed in wheat by dependence upon the rainfall. The 
Bio: Bend and the Palouse countries are notable districts 
of this kind. The high, rolling, bunch-grass hills on the 
western side of the Columbia are so well adapted for 
grazing as to be locally known as the ^' Horse -heaven 
Country." Along the northern line, running easterly to 
Idaho and covering a broad belt of territory, are rich 
mineral and forest areas. But the future of eastern 

186 



ARID WASHINGTON AND OREGON 

Washington, as a whole, hinges on the irrigation indus- 
try. This will be the dependence for the support of a 
dense population, and will have an important bearing on 
the development of other resources. 

The most important tracts of arid land lie in the 
central part of the State. Perhaps no other locality in 
the arid region of the West is so abundantly watered or 
so richly favored in natural navigation facilities, though 
rivers must be improved before they can reach their high- 
est utility. The Columbia river, the Yakima, the Snake, 
and the Wenatchee are the principal sources of water 
supply, though these have numerous valuable tribu- 
taries. The irrigable district is inclosed between the 
Cascade and Bitter Root ranges, and the drainage from 
tliese high mountains furnishes more water than can ever 
be used to advantage. 

The most important irrigation development thus far 
accomplished is in the Yakima Valley. Here there are 
nearly four hundred miles of canals, some of them very 
large. The towns of North Yakima, Pressor, and Ellens- 
burg are the chief points in the irrigated portions of the 
valley. A number of canals have been constructed along 
the Wenatchee river, and a promising development has 
been begun on the plains of the Columbia, near its 
junction with the Snake, in the neighborhood of Kenne- 
wick and Pasco. A good beginning has also been made 
on the Walla Walla river near the Oregon boundar}^, 
and on the Snake river at the point where it flows out 
of Idaho into the Lewiston country. For long dis- 
tances both the Columbia and Snake flow through 
deep channels, so that their abundant supplies can 
be utilized only by pumping. As yet this has not 

187 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

been extensively done, but doubtless will be in tlie 
future. 

The soil of arid Washington is generally a light, sandy 
loam, or volcanic ash. Some portions of the river-bot- 
toms have extensive tracts of dark alluvial soil, while in 
other portions the soil is so sandy as to drift before the 
wind. While alkali is frequently encountered in small 
spots, the soil as a whole may be described as free of both 
alkali and clay. Its depth and texture are such as to in- 
sure good drainage, which is essential in connection with 
irrigation. Rich in potash, lime, and phosphoric acid, 
the soil should prove enduring, as it has already proven 
extremely productive. 

The climate is mild, though distinctly of the temperate 
zone. The temperature sometimes goes as high as 108^ 
in summer days, and as low as zero in winter nights ; yet 
the climate is not severe, in spite of these figures. The 
rainfall varies in different localities. On the sage-brush 
plains of the Columbia it averages only about six inches, 
which is less than in any other part of the United States 
except the extreme Southwest. The resulting dryness 
robs the summer heat and the winter cold of their worst 
effects. In the warmer part of the region snow falls 
rarely and seldom remains on the ground more than 
two or three days. Along the Columbia river ploughing 
can be done almost continuously, while at the higher 
elevations it is suspended from the middle of November 
to the middle of February. Cyclones, tornadoes, and 
blizzards are entirely unknown, and the frequent thun- 
der-storms are so gentle as hardly to deserve the name. 
There is more or less wind at all seasons of the year. 
This is frequently strong enough to raise considerable 

188 




ARTESIAN WELT- AT ZILLAH, WASHINGTON 



ARID WASHINGTON AND OREGON 

dust during the dry season, and wind and dust constitute 
the disagreeable features of an otiierwise delightful cli- 
mate. There is probably no healthier region, nor one 
better adapted to people suffering with throat and lung 
troubles, than arid Washington. 

The products comprise everything that grows in the 
temperate zone, including the tender fruits, which are 
here of great beauty and high flavor. The localities 
where the Yakima, Snake, and Wcnatchee rivers empty 
into the Columbia furnish the earliest products, the sea- 
son being fully a month more advanced than in tho 
humid parts of the State. For this reason rare oppor- 
tunities are offered in the way of market-gardening, 
which is an important consideration, as enabling settlors 
to obtain an income before their trees come into bearing. 

The markets open to the small farmers who settle upon 
the irrigated lands of eastern Washington are extremely 
fortunate. They include the rich and growing mining 
districts of northern Idaho, of Montana, and of British 
Columbia, as well as home markets in the northern and 
western parts of the State. Nature has rather severely 
limited the district which can produce the early fruits, 
small fruits, and vegetables, while these mining regions 
must always be large consumers, and can never hope to 
supply themselves witli early products. The improve- 
ment oC railroad facilities will enhance these advantages. 
Strawberries, raspberries, cherries, pears, peaches, prunes, 
and apples, as well as all vegetables, find ready sale at 
high prices in these markets. The dairy industry is also 
profitable. 

Settlement on the irrigated lands of easterii Washing- 
ton has only begun, and is still far behind canal-build- 

180 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ing. Lack of industrial organization has hindered tlie 
prosperity of those who have come, and this in turn lias 
discouraged further settlement. Land prices range from 
thirty to one hundred dollars per acre, with water-rights. 
The smaller and earlier canals were built by co-operative 
enterprise, but the larger and later ones represent invest- 
ments of eastern and foreign capital. A beginning has 
been made in the construction of public works by means 
of the formation of irrigation districts under the State 
law. 

The most important city in eastern Washington is Spo- 
kane, which lies near the border of Idaho. This is sus- 
tained by surrounding districts devoted to wheat-raising, 
mining, lumbering, and stock industry. The fall in the 
price of grain and horses has been a severe blow to the 
producers, and marks a transition stage in the life of 
the State. It will lead to the extension of irrigation, of 
small farms, of diversified production, and of co-opera- 
tive industries. There is no more promising field for 
the application of the most enlightened methods of colo- 
nization than that offered by the rich and well-watered 
valleys of arid Washington. 

Arid Oregon includes two-thirds of the State, and re- 
sembles its northern neighbor in many respects. It is 
less generously endowed with water supplies, and has 
been less fortunate in interesting capital in the construc- 
tion of large irrigation works. There are, however, one 
hundred and fifty thousand acres of irrigated land in 
eastern Oregon, and it is estimated that this amount can 
be multiplied from ten to twenty times. The country is 
but sparsely settled, and has been mostly devoted to 

190 



ARID WASHINGTON AND OREGON 

wlieat and stock. The climate varies with the altitude, 
and is similar to that of Washington and the lower parts 
of Idaho. The rainfall is about fifteen inches, which is 
not more than half enough for profitable agriculture. 
There are no great extremes of either heat or cold. 

The products are practically the same as those of 
AVasliington, except that the earliest vegetables and 
small fruits are more successfully cultivated in the low 
valleys of the latter. Small-farming and fruit-culture 
are successfully pursued wherever irrigation is provided. 
Indeed, the contrast with the prosperity of those wlio 
operate large farms in grain is very striking. 

The writer recalls an experience in point. On one oc- 
casion he rode for hours through miles of farms devoted 
exclusively to wheat, Avhich was raised at a loss, the 
proprietors generally going into debt for vegetables, 
poultry, and even dairy products, at the stores in the 
county seat. Then at Pendleton, on the same day, ho 
inspected a little patch of irrigated ground — only three 
quarters of an acre in size — which furnished a family 
with vegetables and small fruits, together with a sur- 
plus to be disposed of at the store and sold again to the 
tliriftless farmers who raised only wheat. Here was a 
single cliorry-tree, the product of which sold in the mar- 
ket for exactly the same price as the product of five acres 
of wheat! Ten or twenty acres of irrigated land in east- 
ern Oregon are more valuable than twenty times as much 
farmed in grain and sold at the prices prevailing during 
the past few years. The little farm furnishes a certain 
living, with a prospect of something more ; the largo 
farm means drudgery, debt, and very often ruin. Tlic;s(i 
economic facts having been clearly demonstrated to Oro- 

191 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

gonians in recent years, irrigation has become an impor- 
tant interest. 

The State Commission, in its report to the National 
Irrigation Congress of 1894, made a careful estimate of 
the water resources of eastern Oregon. It was found 
that in the extreme southwestern part of the arid dis- 
trict, bordering the Cascade mountains, half a million 
acres could be watered by using supplies impounded in 
natural lakes, the most important of which are Upper 
and Lower Khxmath, Summer, Albert, Warner, Goose, 
and Silver lakes. In the southeastern part of the State 
forty thousand acres are already commanded by sixteen 
irrigation canals. It was estimated that the irrigable 
area could be increased as follows : In the Snake River 
Valley, two hundred thousand acres; in the Malhuer 
River Valley, two hundred thousand acres ; in the Wil- 
low Creek Valley, one hundred and fifty thousand acres ; 
in Bully Creek Valley, fifty thousand acres ; and in nu- 
merous other valleys, fifteen thousand acres. It would 
be necessary, however, to make provision for the storage 
of water to eSect this result. 

The Umatilla river in northern Oregon is one of the 
large tributaries of the Columbia. Here irrigation en- 
terprise has been so active that at times more than the 
total flow of the stream has been appropriated. As yet 
most of the projected works have not been built, owing 
to the difficulty of interesting capital during the hard 
times. The region is fertile and picturesque, well sup- 
plied with railroad outlets, and certain to be benefited in 
time by improvements which will render the Columbia 
river navigable to the sea. A large area can be brought 
under irrigation, and the district seems likely to be the 

192 



ARID WASHINGTON AND OREGON 

scene of the earliest colonization efforts. Still farther 
west is the region watered by the Des Chutes and John 
Day rivers. Here an area of two hundred miles in ex- 
tent is susceptible of irrigation. The Hood river flows 
through a country which is not entirely arid, but which 
would be much improved by irrigation. The waters of 
this stream are likely to be turned upon the land during 
the next few years. Indeed, it seems probable that the 
irrigation industry will be extended to the higher valleys 
on the western slope, since the process has already begun 
in a small way in the valleys of the Rogue and Willamette. 
The irrigation systems already in operation in eastern 
Oregon are generally applied chiefly to bottom and low- 
lying lands immediately adjacent to the streams. Where 
canals are extensive they are used for the production of 
hay and grain as an adjunct to stock-raising. There are 
a sufficient number of orchards and small farms to de- 
monstrate the possibilities in this direction, but for the 
most part eastern Oregon is undeveloped. It is within 
bounds to say that it can readily make homes for a mill- 
ion people when irrigation is applied to the best advan- 
tage. The first impulse of a new era had begun to be felt 
in 1890, and rose rapidly until the panic of 1893. This 
impulse must again assert itself powerfully, and it seems 
not unlikely that this will happen during the next few 
years. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

No other State has been so bitterly derided as Nevada. 
It has been asserted that the silver mines which made it 
all it was are exhausted ; that it has no other mineral 
wealth ; that it has no agricultural resources ; that it has 
nothing to attract people, and that as a consequence it is 
''flickering out." These statements have found wide 
acceptance, and as a result newspapers and public men 
have seriously discussed propositions to deprive Nevada 
of its Senators, or to merge it into Utah, or otherwise to 
degrade it from its present place of statehood. 

All these charges are untrue. Potentially, Nevada is 
one of the greatest States in the Union. It would be 
difficult to name one commonwealth east of the Missis- 
sippi river which surpasses it in physical endowments, 
and it even ranks well in this respect among the other 
States of the Far West, which it resembles in climate, 
soil, and variety of resources. It is true that Nevada has 
lost population since the decline of the great excitement 
on the Comstock lode, but it is not true that this decline 
is due to the fact that the State has not the raw materials 
of a rich, populous, and powerful community. The 
proper prescription for the economic ills of Nevada is not 
degradation, but development. 

194 



POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

The silver mines which chiefly contribnted to its pros- 
perity in the past were principally those of the famous 
Comstock lode, which prodnced more than $500,000,000 
in precious metals ; of Eureka, $125,000,000 ; of Austin, 
$30,000,000 ; of Lincoln county, $30,000,000 ; of Esmer- 
alda county, $20,000,000 ; of Elko county, $10,000,000. 
There were many other camps of lesser moment. 

Now, it is j)erfectly true that the extraction of such 
vast amounts wrought material changes in the character 
of some of these mines, notably of the Comstock. It by 
no means follows, however, that the deposits of ore have 
been *^ exhausted." The richer ores were utilized at a 
time when silver commanded a high price and when 
economy in milling was not important. But it may be 
asserted upon the best authority that even the mines of the 
Comstock, some of which have been worked to a depth of 
three thousand feet, possess wellnigh unlimited quanti- 
ties of ore running from $G to $15 per ton, and that un- 
der more favorable conditions for silver mining the fa- 
mous lode would perhaps duplicate its peerless record of 
the past. It is not likely that fabulous profits will ever 
again be realized. It is certainly not to be desired that 
the old romance of life in Virginia City, with its hot 
fever of speculation, its glittering successes, and its tragic 
disappointments, should be repeated. But though the 
bonanza days are of the past, the better days of sober 
industrial development are of the future. This state- 
ment applies yet more forcibly to other old camps. 

With few exceptions, deep-mining has not been pur- 
sued. Only the richer ores near the surface have been 
utilized, and these by expensive processes and at high 
cost of transportation. Eureka, Austin and Tuscarora, 

195 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

and the districts in Lincoln and Esmeralda counties — 
all great producers in the past — are yet rich in silver ore 
averaging $8 to $20 per ton. Not only are the old camps 
far from ^' exhausted/' but the undeveloped resources in 
this direction are far from explored. It is not denied 
by any one that admittedly great silver camps in Utah, 
in Colorado, in Idaho, and in Montana, have been com- 
pelled to cease operation partially or completely as a 
result of the depression of prices. The same is true of 
Nevada, but she also labors under peculiar disadvantages 
in the lack of transportation facilities. In the extreme 
southern counties mines have to ship ore to the reduc- 
tion works at Salt Lake City at a cost of $15 per ton. 
There are other localities where the transportation 
charge ranges from $20 to $100 per ton, and where great 
ore bodies carrying $30 to $60 per ton in precious 
metals lie unworked in consequence. The prostration 
of the silver industry in Nevada is due to a number of 
causes, but the fact that the ^' silver mines which made 
her all she was have been exhausted " is not one of them, 
since it exists only in the imagination of those who know 
not whereof they speak. 

The statement that Nevada 'Mias no other mineral 
wealth " is equally wide of the truth. The actual extent 
and value of such resources in any country cannot be 
known in advance of thorough development, but the 
amazing variety of Nevada's natural endowments is a 
fact which no well-informed person ventures to dispute. 
Calling the roll of the fourteen counties, we may see 
that nearly all answer to the truth of this claim. 

Elko, in the extreme northeastern corner of the State, 
where the railroad traveller enters from Utah, yielded 

196 



POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

placer-gold to the earliest prospectors of the Great Basin, 
and has gold ledges of promising extent and value which 
are now being carefully explored. Humboldt, central 
on the northern boundary, presents as great a variety of 
resources as any district in the United States. Besides 
silver, it possesses gold, copper, lead, tin, iron, anti- 
mony, nickel, cobalt, bismuth, nitre, sulphur, gypsum, 
borax, soda, and salt. Coarse gold to the value of sev- 
eral millions has been taken from its placer and gravel 
mines. Gypsum is shipped to San Francisco for fertil- 
izer. Near Lovelock, in this count}^ are great hills of 
fine bessemer iron ore, yielding eighty-six per cent, of iron 
and twelve per cent, of aluminum, with no trace of im- 
purities. Eureka county, in the central part of the State, 
has many mines in which gold predominates, besides large 
deposits of magnetic iron ore, of lead, of granite and 
other building stones. Lander, adjoining Eureka on 
the west, has valuable undeveloped gold deposits and 
the richest mines of antimony in the world. Of the 
western counties, Washoe reports recent discoveries of 
gold, copper, and iron ; Douglas, quartz and placer-gold ; 
Lyon, mines which run high in gold, with but little sil- 
ver ; Churchill, gold, copper, and other minerals; while 
Storey contains the Comstock. Esmeralda, bordering 
California on the extreme southwest, is very rich in 
gold - bearing quartz, and is being actively developed. 
Lincoln and Nye, the two great counties of the south, 
have gold, copper, lead, antimony, zinc, quicksilver, 
fire-clay, chalk, soapstone, borax, and alum. In Lin- 
coln there is a deposit of zinc, estimated to be worth 
several millions, which cannot be worked because of lack 
of transportation facilities. There are hills of salt, the 

197 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

product of which commands locally but $l,per ton, owing 
to its inaccessibility, though other localities in the State 
pay $20 to $40 per ton for a similar product. White 
Pine county, along the eastern boundary, has extensive ' 
gold placers. 

Finally, there is a large deposit in Elko county of 
something which is said never to have been discovered 
elsewhere — mineral soap, superior in cleansing virtues to 
any of the manufactured varieties known to the students 
of modern advertising. As the country was principally 
occupied by Piute Indians, the deposit remained undis- 
turbed for nameless centuries. But it was exhibited at 
the World's Fair, where, it is feared, it added nothing 
to Nevada's fame. The thing was so palpably and un- 
mistakably the perfection of toilet articles that it over- 
taxed eastern credulity, and was quietly set down as a 
larger piece of mendacity than of soap. 

It is further charged tliat Nevada " has no agricultural 
resources." Of all arraignments, this is the most mis- 
taken and unjust, yet it is the one which will find readi- 
est credence by those who know the State only through 
the experience of a restless day's travel by railroad across 
its waste of sage-brush, of sunshine, and of dust. The 
more need, then, for its emphatic refutation, for there 
are millions of Nevada acres which might answer the cry 
of thousands of homeless men. 

The territorial grandeur of the battle-born common- 
wealth is not a matter of dispute. In the East it would 
fill a space from central Pennsylvania to Georgia, and 
from Delaware Bay to Ohio. But as Nevada is very arid, 
having but ten inches of rainfall, and but little of that in 
the growing season, the extent of the water supply is the 

198 



POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

measure of its caj)acity to support population. Upon 
the all - imiDortant subject of the water supply of an 
arid and half -explored country authorities seldom agree. 
They cannot do so in advance of thorough scientific in- 
vestigation, especially where the dependence is largely 
upon flood waters, springs, and artesian wells. But the 
most painstaking and systematic inquiry ever made into 
this branch of Nevada's resources resulted in the con- 
clusion that' at least six million acres of rich soil could 
bo irrigated. 

Such was the report of a State Commission, appointed 
under the auspices of the Irrigation Congress in 1893, of 
which the late Governor John E. Jones was chairman 
and L. E. Taylor, C. E., secretary. The material for 
the report was gathered with the assistance of sub-com- 
mittees in every county, and the conclusions undoubt- 
edly represent the best judgment of practical men inti- 
mately acquainted with the subject in its local details. 
The estimate is based on the use of storage reservoirs 
and the development of springs and artesian basins, as 
well as upon the surface supplies more readily to be cal- 
culated. The commission rej^orted twenty lakes and 
sixteen rivers of importance. Of the utility of the lat- 
ter, it said that the Carson, Walker, and Truckee, flow- 
ing eastward from the Sierras, would irrigate in Nevada 
one million acres ; the Humboldt, another million ; the 
Salmon, Bruneau, and Owyhee, in the extreme north- 
east, four hundred thousand ; the Quinn, which de- 
scends from its Oregon sources into Nevada, one hun- 
dred and seventy-five thousand ; the Virgin, on the ex- 
treme southeast, one hundred thousand. Minor rivers 
and a multitude of flowing springs were counted availa- 

199 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ble for the reclamation of two million four hundred 
thousand acres, while the artesian supplies were relied 
upon to bring the total for the State to at least six 
million acres. 

The authors of these conclusions, among the most re- 
sponsible men in the State, declare them to be well within 
the bounds of conservatism. For the present purpose, 
however, the figures may be reduced two-thirds, and 
still leave an ample foundation for population in Nevada. 
Two States which no one dreams of expelling from the 
Union are Colorado and Utah. The splendid agricult- 
ural prosperity of those arid commonwealths is based 
on a cultivated area of only about two million acres. 
There is no excuse for assuming that with a reasonable 
development of her resources, mineral and manufactur- 
ing as well as agricultural, Nevada could not sustain at 
least as many people as do Utah and Colorado in their 
present condition of partial development. Neither of 
those States has begun to approach the full realization 
of its possibilities, though even now they maintain a 
combined population of about three-quarters of a million. 
This figure is a low estimate of Nevada's capacity in 
that direction. 

The products of the irrigated lands of Nevada are the 
fruits, vegetables, cereals, and grasses of the temperate 
zone, and, in the extreme southern portions, the more 
delicate fruits of the semi-tropics. Average crops are 
thirty-five bushels of wheat per acre, sixty bushels of 
barley, seventy-five bushels of oats, three hundred bush- 
els of potatoes, and four to eight tons of alfalfa, which is 
the leading forage grass. In the extreme southern coun- 
ties, where the altitude is but four hundred feet above 

200 



POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

sea-level, and where the warm breath of the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia is received through the canyons of the Colorado 
river, figs, olives, pomegranates, almonds, English wal- 
nuts, and, in sheltered places, even oranges, may be pro- 
duced, according to the testimony of old residents. The 
climate of Nevada, as the products would indicate, covers 
a wide range. Like all parts of the arid region, it is dis- 
tinguished by pure, dry air, an extraordinary amount of 
sunshine, and consequently a very high degree of health- 
fulness. It is a climate fit to breed a robust and vigor- 
ous race. 

These are not the popular impressions of Nevada, but 
the traveller who has left his hot and dusty car to breathe 
the cool fragrance of the little oasis at Humboldt, to 
walk for a few moments within the shade of its trees, 
and to hear the music of its waters, should not hesitate 
to accept them as true. The little patch of green which 
a hill-side spring has spoken into being here is a sample 
of what millions of desert acres will become. Farther 
on the traveller catches a twilight glimpse of the thriv- 
ing farms of Lovelock or of the green Truckee mead- 
ows. But the larger examples of irrigation lie off the 
beaten path. Such an instance is the Carson Valley, 
hidden between the sheltering shoulders of the Sierras. 
To appreciate the possibilities of this derided State, the 
critic should visit that valley in the perfect Nevada 
spring-time, and look upon its farms, its homes, and its 
villages. There he would behold a memorable picture of 
thrift, of beauty, and of peace, from the white blossoms 
in the door-yards to the white summits of the mountains. 
And there he might read the true prophecy of Nevada's 
future. 

201 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

If, then, this State is '^'flickering oiit,^^ it is emphati- 
cally not due to the fact that it "has nothing to attract 
people/' Resembling Utah and, less closely, Colorado 
in climate and resources, there are reasons which account 
for its poverty of population and backwardness of devel- 
opment in comparison with those growing States. It is, 
perhaps, worth while briefly to review them. 

The men made rich by the mines of Colorado had the 
gratitude and patriotism to spend their money where 
they made it. Tabor gave Denver its first important im- 
pulse by erecting splendid buildings as monuments to his 
faith in the city's future. Hagerman planted the Mid- 
land Railway on the Continental Divide, and invested 
millions in reclaiming arid lands tributary to Colorado 
commerce. General Palmer, the railroad pioneer, found- 
ed Colorado Springs, encouraged improvements in every 
direction, and built his home in the State which had re- 
warded his daring enterprise. Such was the spirit of 
most of the successful Coloradans towards the country 
which gave them their opportunities. The wealth taken 
from the mines and railroads of Nevada, on the other 
liand, contributed nothing to the embellishment of its 
cities or the conquest of its waste-places. It went to 
build palaces in San Francisco, New York, and London, 
and to increase the social gayety of Newport and Paris. 
It would not be just to infer that the difference in the 
attitude of the two sets of millionaires was wholly due 
to their individual characteristics. Circumstances had 
much to do with it, notably the fact that in Nevada the 
mining industry was mostly concentrated in a single 
gTeat camp, which enhanced its speculative character, 
and the fact that the superlative attractions of California 

202 



POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

lay within a few hours' ride of Virginia City. But the 
difference, nevertheless, wrought momentous results in 
the fortunes of States. 

,, The railroad situation is another important factor in 
the backv/ardness of Nevada. Whenever a single rail- 
road controls the inlet and outlet of a State, the indus- 
trial and commercial destinies of that State are, to a large 
extent, committed to the keeping of that railroad. Thcpo 
facts are further emphasized when it happens tliat the rail- 
road runs through agricultural territory and possesses .'i 
land grant covering every other section for a distance of 
twenty miles on both sides of the track. Development 
necessarily hinges on the policy of the railroad, both as 
to rates and as to the encouragement of enterprise. The 
only alternative is to build a competing line, and this h 
extremely difficult if the construction of the first has 
not resulted in the development of the country and the 
growth of its population. Nevada in a flourishing con- 
dition would invite competition not merely for its own 
business, but also for the rich spoil of California's traffic. 
Nevada as a stretch of hopeless desert, on the other 
hand, constitutes a perfect insurance against competi- 
tion for the larger prize on the farther side of the 
Sierras. It has not been the policy of the Central 
Pacific to make this ''risk" extra-hazardous, or to in- 
crease its cost, by developing the territory between Utah 
and California. It is sometimes charged that the Cen- 
tral Pacific is distinctly hostile to Nevada. The prob- 
able truth is that, having the interest of their whole great 
system to consider, the managers arrange their policies 
according to the dictates of shrewd business sense, and 
that Nevada has merely the ill-fortune to be pinched in 

203 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

the process. If it would have paid the Central Pacific 
better to develop the State than to let it remain a wil- 
derness, it would have been developed. Just criticism 
should be directed to the system which permits the pri- 
vate ownership of public highways, and not against indi- 
viduals, since human nature is everywhere much alike. 

Utah was developed without the aid either of rail- 
roads or millionaires, but Utah has had a colonization 
policy from the beginning down to the present hour. If 
Brigham Young had not recalled his colonists from 
the valleys of the Carson, the Walker, and the Truckee 
during the fifties, no one would now complain of de- 
creasing population — a sin never charged against the 
Mormons. The difference between the sister States of 
the Great Basin is not an affair of raw materials. It is 
the difference between the results of speculative mining, 
on one hand, and of the patient develojjment of agricult- 
ural resources by methods of sober industry, on the 
other. 

Nevada is the victim of circumstances. Rich in the 
potentialities of material greatness, and therefore strong 
in the capacity to support a social structure, it presents 
the baffling paradox of declining population in a west- 
ern State. If it were located in South Africa, the na- 
tions of Europe would plot and struggle for possession of 
its minerals, lands, and waters ; if in New South Wales, 
the colonial government would em23loy the public capi- 
tal to reclaim its deserts and to enable the surplus popu- 
lation of Adelaide to make homes upon its soil ; if in 
Germany, the Imperial government would charter ''rent 
banks" to operate under a commission in joreparing the 
land for settlement and building humble liouses, to bo 

204 



POTENTIAL GREATNESS OF NEVADA 

purchased by home-seekers on generous terms ; if in Hol- 
land, the servants of the little Queen would extend the 
admirable colonies which have flourished for seventy-five 
years, graduating thousands of needy men from beggary 
to tenantry, from tenantry to proprietorship. But Ne- 
vada is in the United States, and the remedy for its mis- 
fortune is — to deprive it of its Senators ! 

If anything is to be done for Nevada the impulse must 
come from without. Ninety-five per cent, of her great 
area is public land and the property of the nation. The 
present land laws were made in ignorance of the con- 
ditions imposed by aridity, and are practically unsuited 
for any honest and intelligent purpose of home-making. 
The citizenship of the State is composed of miners, who 
care nothing for agricultural expansion ; of farmers, who 
are not anxious to foster competition ; of stockmen, who 
want undisturbed possession of water privileges for their 
herds ; and of merchants and professional men who are 
helpless to turn the wheel of progress. Congressman 
Newlands made an elaborate effort to awaken interest in 
irrigation development a few years ago, offering to back 
it with his large means, but it came to nothing because of 
public indifference and subtle opposition. The same con- 
ditions prevented the strong effort of the late Governor 
Jones — a man who had the progress of his State deeply at 
heart — from reforming the water laws and providing an 
irrigation administrative system. It would not be diffi- 
cult to suggest palliative policies which would help to 
turn the tide in the right direction. For instance, cer- 
tain favored districts might be withdrawn from settlement 
under present laws, and granted under special induce- 
ments to organizations like the Salvation Army, or Oom- 

205 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

mander Booth's Volunteers, who might reclaim and 
colonize them in co-operation with philantliroj)ic persons. 
But the truth is that Nevada's decadence is due to 
economic evils common to the arid region — to evils which 
call for deeper and broader measures than can be applied 
to any single locality. 



CHAPTER VII 
WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF THE ARID REGION" 

A siN'GLE railroad traverses the lengtli of Wyoming, 
taking the traveller through that portion of the State 
possessing the least attractions in the way of scenery and 
development. As a consequence, thousands of people 
who have made the transcontinental journey think of 
this new commonwealth as a barren wilderness of withered 
grass and stunted sage-brush, with an abundance of 
rugged mountain views along its southern horizon, but 
without visible means of support for population save a few 
cheerless trading towns and grimy coal-mining camps. 
These tourists find the altitude disagreeably high and the 
atmosphere generally chilly, if not cold. They behold no 
cultivated fields, no homes framed in trees and vines ; 
hence do not marvel that the population of this vast 
State is no larger than that of fourth-class cities in the 
East. 

Spite of this popular prejudice, which may hardly be 
complained of as unreasonable, Wyoming is a very great 
State in its natural resources, and must some day sustain 
a population as large as that of Ohio and Illinois. If 
its fij^st railroad had penetrated its central or northern 
counties it would even now be as celebrated and as pop- 
ulous as Colorado. Because of its stores of coal and 

207 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

petroleum it is frequently called the '' Pennsylvania of 
the West." Its deposits of both base and precious metals 
are extensive and widely diffused, though the present 
output is small, owing to the cost of transportation and 
the fact that mining capital and enterprise have been at- 
tracted elsewhere by the greater fame of other localities. 
It is well endowed with forests and blessed with the no- 
blest scenery, of which the far-famed grandeurs of the 
Yellowstone Park furnish the best example. But its 
greatest resources are those of water and of land. It is 
estimated that not less than ten million acres of fertile 
land may be reclaimed by irrigation. Distributed rather 
evenly through different portions of the State, and sur- 
rounded by the wealth of mine, forest, water-power, and 
natural pastures, this irrigable land will furnish the solid 
foundation of a great and manifold economic life in fut- 
ure centuries. 

The great industry of Wyoming from the time of its 
first settlement has been stock-raising. Its agriculture 
has been mostly auxiliary to this. Herds of horses, 
cattle, and sheep are grazed upon the enormous free 
pasture or range from spring to autumn, and then fed 
upon the native or alfalfa hay raised in the irrigated 
valleys. This industry has been the source of local pros- 
perity and enlisted great sums of eastern and foreign 
capital. It is a pursuit which does not develop the 
higher possibilities of the country, either in a material 
or social way, and so long as its influence strongly domi- 
nated the life of the community Wyoming did not fur- 
nish an attractive field for settlers. There was a^time 
when prominent men actually deprecated the growth of 
population, and boldly asserted that brute cattle were 

208 



WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF ARID REGION 

more to be welcomed than men, women, and children in 
that sparsely settled empire. In the last few years, hoAv- 
ever, the tendency of public thought and political action, 
consequently of development, has been distinctly away 
from barbarism and towards civilization. 

What is rather grotesquely known as '^ The Rustlers' 
War " of 1892 had much to do with the changed con- 
ditions. Properly speaking, it was not a war, but a raid, 
which ended disastrously so far as its immediate purpose 
was concerned. Individuals and companies owning large 
herds of horses and cattle had suffered repeatedly from 
the depredations of thieves or ''rustlers.^' They had 
often apprehended the culprits and sought by every 
means in their power to punish them through the courts. 
But the cases were tried in counties where public sen- 
timent strongly opposed the great cattle-owners. The 
result was that no jury could be found to convict. After 
a long and exasperating experience of this kind the 
large stock interests determined to try a heroic remedy. 
They fitted out an expedition, consisting mostly of rough 
characters from Texas, and thoroughly armed it, even a 
Gatling gun being included in its equipment. ' The ex- 
pedition was led by prominent and wealthy citizens and 
accompanied by a young English lord in search of a new 
sensation. 

A considerable number of " rustlers," who were settlers 
living in lonely places with small bands of cattle or horses, 
were marked for ''removal," or, plainly speaking, for 
murder. The expedition set out blithely enough, har- 
boring no doubts of its complete success and not dream- 
ing that any obstacle could be interposed to its formi- 
dable array. The first two ''rustlers " encountered were 
o 209 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

found conveniently at their cabin doors and promptly 
despatched, though they died with their guns in their 
hands and were able to make a feeble response to the 
overwhelming numbers. But beyond these two assassi- 
nations the expedition was unsuccessful. The small 
settlers throughout the region were in sympathy with the 
men marked for death. The news of the "invasion" 
spread with incredible swiftness, and before the expedition 
could reach the homes of other intended victims the 
"rustlers" and their farmer allies, under the aggressive 
leadership of Jack Flagg — a noted character in the neigh- 
borhood — rallied in large numbers. They surrounded 
the "invaders" at a farm-house, and would have exter- 
minated them to the last man except for the timely ar- 
rival of a troop of United States cavalry from the nearest 
fort. After several months of delay, the powerful politi- 
cal influence of those who had organized the expedition 
succeeded in setting its members free without serious 
punishment. 

Public opinion differed much as to the justice of this 
bold effort to dispose once and for all of the annoying and 
costly evil of cattle -thieves. By some it was regarded 
as the irrepressible conflict between the irrigated farm 
and the free range. These thought that the real animus 
of the affair lay not in the just complaint against a few 
thieves, but in the fixed determination of those who 
profited from the unrestricted use of the public lands to 
present, at any cost, further settlement by honest farmers. 
On the other hand, there were many good citizens, men 
who had not hesitated to risk their fortunes in construct- 
ing irrigation works for the very purpose of opening 
certain valleys to settlement, who did not hesitate to 

210 



WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF ARID REGION 

defend the expedition as the only possible means of end- 
ing an intolerable condition in the State. The writer 
has taken pains to gather testimony years after the 
events when angry passions had wholly passed away, and 
found excellent evidence of the fact that those who were 
selected for extermination at the hands of the ^invad- 
ers'' were actually cattle- thieves; that it was clearly 
impossible either to end the evil or to stop its growth by 
appeal to the courts; and that farmers who settled in 
good faith were never molested by the large stock in- 
terests. 

However, the political control of Wyoming speedily 
changed hands as the result of this dramatic episode. 
The party in power at the time of the event was voted 
into retirement, and the party which denounced the 
*^ invasion ^' as a savage and unmanly attempt to make 
widows and orphans of the wives and children of those 
who honestly sought homes in the public domain was 
installed in the Capitol at Cheyenne. The probable 
truth of the matter is that wealthy cattlemen had a real 
grievance which they could not adjust peacefully with- 
out years of patient waiting. They felt perfectly jnsti- 
lied in their consciences in resorting to violence. They 
believed the result would be favorable to the prosperity 
and good name of the State. This actually proved to be 
the case, but in a very different way from what they had 
anticipated. It drew attention in a startling manner to 
certain evils inseparable from the open range and put 
these evils on the road to ultimate settlement through 
Congressional action. It broke the power of what was 
doubtless justly known as *^ The Cattle Ring'' in State 
politics. It gave an impulse to better forms of develop- 

211 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ment and a healthier tone to public thought. Above 
all, it taught the men of the frontier the great lesson 
that this is a government of laws and institutions, and 
that nothing is to be gained in the end by resorting to 
violence, at least when nothing more precious to human- 
ity than the ownership of dumb brutes is the issue in- 
volved. 

The irrigation development of Wyoming is distributed 
over a wide area. As has already been said, it has grown 
up mostly as an adjunct to the cattle business. The 
water supply is very abundant, and admitted of the con- 
struction of many cheap canals by settlers, without the 
assistance of outside capital. Grass, grain, and vege- 
tables are the principal crops, but the State annually 
sends from half a million to one million dollars beyond 
its borders for agricultural products. This is due in 
part to the fact that the chief farming centres are wide- 
ly separated from the principal towns and not connected 
with them by railroads. It is due also to the fact that 
small-farming has not yet been undertaken to any extent, 
and that farmers produce mostly only what they can feed 
to cattle or sell to others having cattle to feed. 

The most active agricultural region is in the north- 
central portion of the State, in Johnson and Sheridan 
counties. It was from this district that the marvellous 
wheat, barley, and oats were sent to the World's Fair at 
Chicago — products which astonished Eastern farmers and 
won the highest prizes. Here, as indeed throughout the 
State, the farmers are highly prosperous. They have 
never known the miseries of their drought - stricken 
neighbors so close at hand in Nebraska and Dakota. 
Selling their product at home, they have not felt the bur- 

212 



WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF ARID REGION 

den of transportation charges, nor had their prices much 
reduced by the glut of cereals in the world's market. 

The earliest irrigation work of great importance was 
that at Wheatland, sixty-five miles north of Cheyenne. 
This was undertaken by local capitalists, headed by 
ex -Senator Carey. After surviving many difficulties, it 
has at length entered upon a period of real prosperity 
and created the finest agricultural colony in tlie State. 
It is interesting to note that many of its people repre- 
sent the overflow of the famous Greeley Colony in neigh- 
boring Colorado. Although less than a generation from 
its founding, Greeley already has surplus people to send 
forth for the conquest of waste places a little farther 
off. 

The most notable recent enterprise in Wyoming is that 
undertaken in the Big Horn Basin by the famous scout 
William F. Cody, familiarly known as *' Buffalo Bill." 
This energetic and ambitious man, who has twice won 
fame — first as a daring and successful scout, and then 
as exhibitor to two continents of the life, people, and 
customs of the Wild West — is laying broad and deep the 
foundations of a stronger claim to remembrance. He 
conceived the idea of planting civilization in one of the 
wildest regions which he had first known as hunter and 
Indian-fighter. The money which the public has poured 
into the coffers of his AVild West Show, Cody has used in 
reclaiming and colonizing two hundred thousand acres 
in the valley of the Shoshone river in northern Wj^o- 
ming, twenty to sixty miles from the Montana line and 
immediately east of Yellowstone Park. The altitude 
here is only about four thousand feet, and the climate 
suited to the production of diversified crops, including 

213 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ha,rdy fruits. It is also the finest of cattle countries, 
and is surrounded by an abundance of mineral and tim- 
ber. Its products find ready sale in the large and grow- 
ing mining-camps of the neighborhood, as well as of Mon- 
tana. In time the region must acquire a large popula- 
tion and support a many-sided industrial life. It will 
be a very substantial monument to William F. Cody and 
his work for the AVest. 

Wyoming possesses a distinction entirely apart from 
its rich endowment of mineral resources and different 
from that of any of its sister commoiiwealths. It is rec- 
ognized as the law-giver of the arid region. It is the 
State which has contributed most to working out the 
legal institutions on which a great future civilization will 
rest throughout western America. In this respect its 
position of leadership is alike unapproached and un- 
challenged. 

Those who live in the humid portions of the United 
States cannot realize the full significance of this fact. 
In the arid West water is gold. The struggle for its 
possession has been marked by dramatic interest and even 
pathos, wholly apart from its economic character. In- 
deed, the control of water for irrigation is so inter- 
woven with the existence and well-being of society in 
the West that it may almost be said to include every 
human interest. Men may own estates of equal size and 
fertility lying side by side. The one who came earliest 
claims the water supply, which may be barely sufficient 
for his own land. With this water supply he makes his 
place blossom with large and regular crops, and is rich. 
His neighbor, with the same kind of soil and climate, is 
doomed to perpetual poverty. Water has made all the 

214 




r^ M4m 



WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF ARID REGION 

difference between success and failure — between plenty 
and starvation. Under these conditions it becomes a 
matter of the highest possible moment to provide for the 
just distribution and the economical and proper use of 
so much water as may be available. In the arid region 
as a whole there is at least five times as much land as 
water for its reclamation. There are certain valleys 
where the water snp2:)ly is more than sufficient for the 
amount of land it can command, but these are rare ex- 
ceptions. 

It would be natural to suppose that the first object of 
western statesmanship would have been to provide laws 
and methods of administration calculated to conserve 
and protect the water supply, to the end that it might be 
used for the greatest good of the greatest number. No 
perfection of laws which a State may confer upon its citi- 
zens in any other respect can make amends for any in- 
justice it may inflict, by acts either of commission or 
omission, in connection with this most precious of all 
natural gifts. Of land, minerals, timber, sunshine, and 
air there is plenty and to spare; of water there is lit- 
tle enough, even in the early stages of settlement, and its 
value must increase with the gain in population. It is 
true public policy — aye, the very measure of the growth 
and wealth of communities — to have the water so granted 
and so applied that it may serve for the permanent rec- 
lamation of the utmost acre of land ; for the building 
of the utmost home ; for the sustenance of the utmost 
family. 

Our statesmanship failed almost entirely to take into 
account this most vital concern of western civiliza- 
tion. It imposed upon the arid region the common laws 

215 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

of England, framed for a country which needs drainage 
rather than irrigation, and suffers from too great an 
abundance of water in the clouds above and the earth 
beneath. The result has been the most disheartening 
struggle among farmers and settlers which could be im- 
agined. Lawyers have grown rich upon it, but the pro- 
ducing classes have been impoverished, and the men of 
enterprise who sought to broaden the foundation for civ- 
ilized society in our western valleys have been discour- 
aged and driven out of business. Stream after stream 
has been appropriated over and over again, and, in com- 
pliance with stupid laws, courts have calmly confirmed 
grants to water aggregating many times the entire vol- 
ume in the channel. Then they have left the farmers 
to fight it out among themselves, sometimes with rival 
attorneys, sometimes with shot-guns. Cases have gone 
from court to court, and the same issues have been tried, 
retried, and tried again. Litigants defeated upon these 
trials have ignored judicial decisions and taken out their 
neighbors* head-gates and dams in defiance of injunc- 
tions and decrees. So the battle has gone on from year 
to year, with victory at last for those who could longest 
withstand the drain for legal expenses. 

This was the condition in Wyoming when Elwood 
Mead came upon the scene and assumed the duties of 
Territorial Engineer. A native of Indiana, he had 
moved to Colorado in earliest manhood and was at once 
attracted by the irrigation possibilities of the country, 
in which he saw opportunities for usefulness and dis- 
tinction. He served for a time as a member of the 
faculty of the Agricultural College of Colorado, and 
there learned the science of irrigation in its relation to 

216 



WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF ARID REGION 

the growth of crops. He also became an assistant in 
the office of State Engineer, which gave him an insight 
into water laws and practice. The moment of his arrival 
in Wyoming was most fortunate. The Territory was 
about to become a State, and its fundamental laws and 
institutions were to be made out of hand. The young 
engineer had already formed strong convictions as to the 
laws which should govern the appropriation and use of 
the water supply. These convictions he succeeded in im- 
pressing upon the work of the Constitutional Conven- 
tion, and, later, upon the acts of the Legislature. He 
became the first State Engineer of Wyoming, and suc- 
ceeding Governors kept him in office, with the strongest 
public approval, until the Agricultural Department at 
Washington called him into its service in order that his 
abilities and experience might be applied in a wider 
sphere. 

Mr. Mead insisted that with the birth of the new 
State every old water-right should be adjudicated upon 
the basis of the amount of water actually applied to a 
beneficial use. It mattered not how much the appro- 
priator had originally claimed by posting a notice on the 
bank of the stream and placing it upon the county rec- 
ords. He may have claimed ten times the amount of 
water he put upon his land, and so prevented others from 
obtaining it to develop new farms. Or he may have put 
upon his land twice as much water as the crop really 
required. Whether he did this through ignorance or 
through greed was of no consequence, since the result 
was equally detrimental to the community in either 
case. By means of this vigorous action the evil which 
has caused so much suffering and cost so much money 

217 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

in other western States was cured at a stroke in Wy- 
oming. 

The State Engineer then proceeded as rapidly as pos- 
sible to measure every stream used for irrigation, and to 
prepare diagrams showing their flow at different seasons 
of the year. When new appropriations v/ere filed, these 
diagrams and records became very useful, as showing 
the amount of water unused and therefore available for 
the needs of new settlers. Thus there was no danger 
that more v/ater would be granted away than flowed in 
the stream, which is the ridiculous condition in many 
other localities. The same rule was applied to the en- 
largement of old canals. Such enlargements could not 
be made without the consent of State authority, and be- 
fore this would be given it must be demonstrated that 
there was actually a surplus in the stream to fill the en- 
larged canal. 

Elsewhere reservoirs, dams, and canals are construct- 
ed without any public supervision. In Wyoming all 
plans and specifications must first be submitted to the 
State Engineer, in order that he may judge as to whether 
they are in accordance with public policy, by making the 
best use of the water supply and by conserving life and 
property. 

These wise laws could be of little effect unless en- 
forced and carried out by an adequate system of adminis- 
tration. This was also provided under Mr. Mead's influ- 
ence. The State Engineer is the head of the system, and 
he has two assistant engineers. The State is divided 
into four large divisions, corresponding to natural hydro- 
graphic districts, and over each a division superinten- 
dent is placed in charge. These divisions are then 

218 



WYOMING, LAW-GIVER OF ARID REGION 

organized into several subdivisions, with a, water commis- 
sioner over each. In Division No. 1 there are fourteen 
subdivisions ; in Division No. 2, six ; in Division No. 3, 
two; in Division No. 4, three. The water commission- 
ers are vested with police powers, and personally see that 
the water is turned into the head-gate of each canal in 
accordance with its legal claims. There is no oppor- 
tunity for neighbors to go to law, or even to shoot eacli 
other. The exact amount of water to which they are en- 
titled, upon the basis of beneficial use under economical 
metliods, was determined at the beginning, and this 
amount is meted out to them by officials having no in- 
terest in local contentions. 

These laws and this administrative system have not 
only given peace and prosperity to the irrigation industry 
of Wyoming, but are regarded as models the world over. 
Other States have copied them extensivel}^, and there 
can be no question that in the end they will become 
common to the entire arid region. Colorado was also a 
pioneer in this same field, but neither its laws nor its 
administrative system are equal to those of Wyoming. 
There constant litigation has caused loss and hindered 
development, yet, with the exception of Wyoming, no 
other State has done so much to illustrate the better pos- 
sibilities of water control than Colorado. Idaho, Nebras- 
ka, South Dakota, Kansas, and Washington have en- 
acted portions of the Wyoming laws. In all the other 
States, with the single exception of California, the ex- 
ample of Wyoming has produced results, and there is 
hope that even California will learn in time that irriga- 
tion and litigation are not necessarily synonymous terms. 

When Wyoming, in common with the other arid 

219 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

States, received a grant of one million acres, to be re- 
claimed under State control, Mr. Mead proceeded at 
once to apply his ideas of public supervision to this 
grant. Upon his recommendation the legislature pro- 
vided that these lands should be reclaimed by con- 
struction companies upon conditions which furnished 
the best security to the capital employed, yet provided 
at the same time for the sale of lands to actual set- 
tlers and for their ultimate ownership of the canals. 
A maximum price was fixed for water - rights, which 
were made inseparable from the land. Other States 
copied the law verbatim from the statute-books of Wy- 
oming. 

Aside from the great work accomplished by Mr. Mead 
in reforming the irrigation laws and customs of the West, 
Wyoming has made another contribution of large im- 
portance to the country's progress along this line. Two 
of her United States Senators, Joseph M. Carey and 
Francis E. Warren, have identified themselves conspic- 
uously with great measures calculated to create homes 
for millions. Senator Carey was the author of the Act 
of 1894, commonly known as the Carey Law, which gave 
one million acres to each of the western States upon con- 
dition that the land be reclaimed and settled within ten 
years. Senator Warren is the leader of the new and grow- 
ing movement which aims at Federal appropriations to be 
used in the construction of great reservoirs beyond the 
reach of private enterprise. With signal ability and de- 
votion these two Wyoming statesmen have labored for 
years to open the arid public domain to settlement ; to 
solve the vexed questions arising from the unrestricted 
use of the open range ; and to provide enlightened legis- 

220 



WYOMING, LAVV-GIVEK OF ARID REGION 

Iiitioa for the protection of the forests so important in 
connection with irrigation. 

Wyoming's place as the law-giver of the arid region is 
due neither to geographical location nor to superior 
natural resources. Certainly it is not due to large pop- 
ulation. It owes its commanding position solely to the 
character and ability of a few public men who happen 
to have found in this line of work their best opportu- 
nities for usefulness. As a result of this fortunate cir- 
cumstance, Wyoming occupies among western States at 
the beginning of the twentieth century a relation not 
unlike that which Massachusetts and Virginia held to 
the States of the Atlantic seaboard at the beginning of 
the nineteenth century. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE PROSPERITY OF MONTANA 

Montana is a State of magnificent resources. The 
first white men who ever saw it — French explorers in 
the middle of the eighteenth century — called it " The 
Land of the Shining Mountains." The appellation is 
true as well as poetic, for it is the possession of its snow- 
capped ranges, reflecting the light of the brilliant sky, 
which differentiates Montana from the adjoining prairie 
States of the Northwest. It is the mountains which hold 
the wealth of waters and minerals and make the charac- 
ter of the climate. 

Montana ranks third in point of area among American 
States, and third in the value of its annual mineral out- 
put. It is yet too early, by many years, to estimate its 
final place in extent of population and agriculture. To- 
day mining is the first of its industries, stock-raising the 
second, agriculture the third. Mining gave the impulse 
to its settlement and is the backbone of its prosperity. 
The forty millions of dollars annually taken out in cop- 
per, lead, gold, and silver make it one of the most pros- 
perous of western communities. The discovery of new 
mining districts steadily continues, and the flow of wealth 
from this item of the State's resources will endure in- 
definitely. The conditions of the stock industry are 



THE PROSPERITY OF MONTANA 

very similar to those which Ave observed in Wyoming. 
Of the total population of about two hundred thousand, 
the farmers are a small minority. Nevertheless, irriga- 
tion is recognized as one of the most important interests 
of the State, and the field open to settlement offers many 
attractions. 

The first ditches in Montana were made for the pur- 
pose of washing gold-bearing gravel along the bars and 
gulcheso When their usefulness in this direction was 
exhausted they were turned into irrigation canals by the 
farmers who came close upon the heels of the early miners. 
For many years development was limited to works of this 
humble character. Farmers had their own individual 
ditches, or combined their labor in making canals suffi- 
cient to water small districts. In this manner most of 
the mountain streams capable of easy diversion were util- 
ized. As in AVyoming, irrigation was largely used as 
only an adjunct to stock-raising. In recent years le- 
gitimate agriculture has begun to make rapid progress. 
Large capital has been invested in a few comprehensive 
irrigation systems, notably in the valleys of the Dearborn 
and the Sun rivers, north of Helena. 

Montana is divided into three natural drainage areas — 
those of the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers on the east 
of the main range of the Rockies, and that of the waters 
tributary to the Columbia on the western slope of the 
mountains. The eastern slope embraces the fertile val- 
leys of the Yellowstone, the Gallatin, the Madison, the 
Jefferson, the Beaverhead, the Prickly, and the long val- 
ley of the Missouri, with the Milk-river system in the 
extreme north, on the border of Canada. Tlie western 
slope is mountainous and heavily timbered, with com- 

22a 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

paratively small though fertile valleys. The principal 
streams are the Flathead, Clarke's Fork of the Columbia, 
and the Kootenai. The ultimate extent of irrigable land 
within the boundaries of Montana is purely speculative, 
estimates ranging from ten to thirty million acres. In 
the matter of water supply the State is among the most 
fortunate in the West, though its full utilization will 
require vast expenditure for the construction of storage- 
works and of long canals. Some of the largest rivers, 
like the Missouri and the Yellowstone, are enclosed by 
high bluifs, and water can be taken to the elevated 
plains, comprising the larger areas of valuable land, 
only by means of diversions made high up upon the 
streams. 

The opportunities which Montana offers to settlers 
have not been appreciated as they deserve. This is 
doubtless due to the severity of the climate, which is 
generally misunderstood. The State is in a high lati- 
tude, and does, indeed, experience cold winters. But its 
valleys are comparatively low, averaging much lower 
than those of Wyoming, Colorado, Nevada, and Utah, 
and its climate decidedly healthful. The thermometer 
goes twenty or thirty degrees below zero in the winter, 
but this degree of cold in the dry air of Montana is 
much less disagreeable than ten degrees above zero in 
any of the cities on the borders of the Great Lakes. On 
the other hand, the State enjoys a remarkably even pros- 
perity, and no other localities offer better certainty of 
home markets, where the products of the farm can be 
disposed of at good prices. 

There are many large and growing towns, and two or 
three cities of considerable size. The mining popula- 

^24 



M 

M 
OD 

I— I 

o 

o 

X 

> 
c 

N 

o 
> 




THE PROSrp:RITY OF MONTANA 

tion is destined steadily to increase, while manufactur- 
ing must begin in earnest during the next decade. The 
wheat, rye, oats, and vegetables produced in the irri- 
gated valleys are remarkable both in quantity and qual- 
ity. The brewers of Brooklyn, New York, selected the 
Manhattan Valley for important agricultural operations, 
because they found it would grow the finest barley in the 
world. Small fruits are prolific and of fine flavor. 

Even the orchard fruits, especially apples and plums, 
are produced successfully in the more sheltered valleys. 
The exhibits which one sees at county fairs, particu- 
larly at those on the western slope in valleys like the 
Bitter Root, make surprising revelations of the fruit 
possibilities in this northwestern State. But the settler's 
chief opportunity will be found in supplying the com- 
mon farm products required by the largo and growing 
population in the cities and towns. Of the present local 
consumption, forty per cent, of the flour, ninety per 
cent, of the pork, bacon, and ham, ninety-two per cent, 
of the lard, thirty per cent, of the butter, ninety-eight 
per cent, of the cheese, and forty-three per cent, of the 
eggs are now brought in from elsewhere. When these 
facts are considered in connection with the cheap land, 
abundant water supply, and healthful climate, it is ap- 
parent that Montana offers great attractions to colonists. 

The Gallatin Valley, southeast of Helena on the main 
line of the Northern Pacific, is the most famous agri- 
cultural district of Montana. It is well settled, with a 
class of thrifty farmers engaged in producing a variety of 
ordinary crops. Bozeman, the county seat, is the home 
of the State Agricultural College, and this institute has 
done much to raise the standard of irrigation and of 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

farming in the locality, and thus to enhance the valley's 
prestige. The Missouri Valley, in the neighborhood of 
Great Falls, and the Bitter Root Valley about Missoula, 
are other well-develoiied districts. Crops are generally 
planted in April or the first half of May, though some- 
times in March. The spring rains continuing until the 
middle of June, irrigation does not begin until that date. 
Cattle, sheep, and wool are shipped to eastern markets, 
but other products are consumed within the State. 

While copper and the precious metals are the chief 
mineral products of the State, it is rich in load, iron, 
coal, building materials, and precious stones. It is esti- 
mated that an area of not less than fifty thousand square 
miles is underlaid with bituminous or lignite coal of good 
quality. Coke is a growing product. The State is also 
rich in forests and abundantly supplied with natural 
water-power. It has, in a word, all the materials of a 
diversified industrial life. 

The social and political life of Montana is vigorous 
and interestino:. Both the climate and the industries 
are calculated to breed a sturdy and self-reliant people. 
Helena, the capital, located in what was formerly known 
as Last Chance Gulch, has long enjoyed the reputation 
of being the richest city in proportion to its population 
in the world. Butte is still larger — the largest mining 
camp in the United States. These two leading towns 
present radically dilferent aspects of western life. 
Helena is the political and social capital, Butte the 
grimy centre of industry. Both have enjoyed phenom- 
enal prosperity, and escaped, to a large degree, the re- 
lapses which have afflicted other ambitious western 
cities at various times. 

226 



THE PliOSPEUITY OF MONTANA 

Tlio truth is tliat Montana has boon, and is yet, a 
marvellously substantial State. It has enjoyed a steady 
stream of wealth from the mine, the range, and the farm. 
Its mercantile enterprises have naturally thriven under 
these conditions, and labor has been busy and well paid. 
It has not been the policy of the people to encourage 
immigration on reckless lines merely to increase the 
population. On the contrary, the public sentiment has 
been notably conservative, and has only urged those to 
come who could be self-supporting by tilling the soil or 
establishing other industries. 

. Great Falls, located at the most eligible water-power 
of the Upper Missouri river, has enjoyed a remarkable 
growth of population, and promises to become in time 
one of the great cities of the West. In addition to the 
water-power, it has the advantage of being surrounded 
by the raw materials of manufacture, in the shape of 
coal, iron, timber, and the products of the range— such 
as wool and hides— wliile largo agricultural districts are 
tributary to it. There are many important towns along 
the line of tlie Northern Pacific and the Great Northern 
railroads. Of these Missoula is a prosperous mercantile 
point on the western slope, and Billings is the focus of 
agriculture in the Yellowstone Valley. 

Viewed as a whole, Montana is a Stato of substantial 
achievement and of splendid promise. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE AWAKENI]S"a OF NEW MEXICO 

In" tlio sontliwestern Territories modern methods of 
rcclamatiou are assorting tlieir influence in the midst of 
historic and prehistoric irrigation scenes. 

In 1539 Fra}' Marcos de Nija, tlie earliest European 
who trod the soil of New Mexico, travelled for five days 
through a 'S'alley well watered and in a high state of 
cultivation, so that three thousand horsemen might have 
been sustained there." Another sixteenth-century visit- 
or saw corn-fields ^' watered by a small river which flowed 
near by, along the banks of which were growing great 
beds of roses, similar to those of Castile."" Many a tour- 
ist on the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad has seen the in- 
dustrious Pueblo Indians at work in their fields about 
Laguna. The travellers of three hundred and fifty years 
ago looked upon these same fields, which were irrigated 
then precisely as now, and as they probably had been for 
centuries before. 

New i\Iexico is much less favored in its water supply 
than the northern States of the arid region. • Many of 
its streams arc torrential and intermittent in character, 
carrying water in floods at some seasons and exhibiting 
dry channels when moisture is most needed. A large 
portion of the water supply, when the irrigation indus- 

228 



THE AWAKENING OF NEW MEXICO 

try shall be fully doveloped,, will bo obtained by storage 
and from underground sources. This process has al- 
ready begun, but its operations will bo much extended. 
Scattered all over the territory are the petty ditches of 
that numerous Mexican and Indian population which 
lives in serene peace and comfort upon the fruits of its 
unambitious elYorts at tilling the soil. 

The important streams are the San Jnan in the north- 
western corner of the Territory, the liio Grande, which 
Hows through the central portion from Colorado to Mex- 
ico, and the llio Pecos in the southeast. These streams 
and their tributaries furnisli the basis of the modern ir- 
rigation industry of New Mexico. 

The northwestern part of the Territory is a picta- 
rcsque and promising region, fortunate alike in mineral 
and water resources, in the fertility of its soil, and the 
charm of its climate. A number of small irrigation 
systems have been constructed, but storage Avill be re- 
quired before the opportunities of the district can be ex- 
tensively realized. The rivers are the San Juan and its 
tributaries, the most important of these being the Pino, 
the Animas, and the La Plata. AVlicn these are fully 
utilized, thousands of small farmers will be able to estab- 
lisli profitable industries, including the culture of finely 
flavored, delicate fruits. Tliey will find home markets 
in surrounding mining camps and in supplying feed for 
sheep and cattle which range upon the public pastures. 
Although this portion of the Territory is now remote 
from the main lines of railroad travel, its sii^torior advan- 
tages must attract the attention of enterprise aiul im- 
migrants in the future and make it one of the most 
prosperous parts of the future State. 

239 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

New Mexico is distiiigiiishecl by large land grants 
dating from the days of Spanish control. They were 
naturally located along the watercourses, in what ap- 
peared to be the most attractive portions of the field 
open for selection. These enormous grants have ma- 
terially retarded development, for the reason that their 
titles were in dispute for many years and their owners 
generally *^land poor.^' 

One of the most important of these properties is now 
known as the Maxwell Land Grant, and constitutes a 
principality in the northeastern part of the Territory, 
encroaching slightly upon Colorado. Large capital has 
been used in the development of the mineral and agri- 
cultural resources of this grant. Its principal streams 
are the Vermejo and the Cimarron. Both have been 
utilized extensively in connection with systems of reser- 
voirs and canals which are notable for some of their 
engineering features. Large areas have been irrigated 
and are cultivated in various crops. 

The waters of the Rio Grande have been diverted 
at many points along its course. This river rises in Col- 
orado, where a large portion of its supplies are taken 
out for use in the San Luis Valley. This interferes with 
New Mexico irrigation during the stage of low water in 
the summer. When the stream reaches old Mexico it is 
still further diminished, v/itli the result of making in- 
ternational complications on the south even more vexa- 
tious than the interstate troubles which it creates in the 
north. The solution of both difficulties will be reached 
through extensive storage arrangements at favorable 
points in the valley, and some wise administrative plan 
looking to the equitable distribution of the much-vexed 

230 



THE AWAKENING OF NEW MEXICO 

stream. The building of great reservoirs along the 
lower course of the Kio G-rande, just north of El Paso, 
has long been under consideration and must surely 
sometime be accomplished, either by private or public 
enterprise. The soil and climate are exceptionally fa- 
vorable to the higher forms of the irrigation industry, 
and its possibilities will be quickly realized when the 
question of storing and distributing the water shall be 
settled in the right way. The character of these possi- 
bilities may already be dimly discerned in the place 
where Texas reaches out a slender finger of prosperity 
below El Paso. Here the Mexicans have made a beauti- 
ful agricultural and horticultural district, and live with 
an enviable degree of comfort and thrift, though their 
methods are crude and ancient. 

Much the most notable irrigation development in New 
Mexico is that which has been accomplished since 1890 
in the Pecos Valley. It is in the southeastern quarter 
of the Territory, bordering upon the Staked Plains of 
western Texas. No other locality in the arid region has 
had the benefit of such daring enterprise and dauntless 
faith as have been lavished upon this, originally one of 
the most forbidding and unpromising of western valleys. 
By sheer force of money it has been translated from a 
semi-barbarous stock-range, fit only to support lean cat- 
tle, to an attractive field for settlement, where thousands 
of families can make their homes and win a certain livins: 
from the soil. 

Before irria:ation was invoked the reirion was a social 
and. moral desert as well as a waste of arid land. It was 
the home of outlaws and the scene of frontier conflict. 
"Billy the Kid" was the perfect fruit of the old con- 

2?A 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ditions, and it was here that the youthful desperado lived, 
fought, and died. While his kind are not yet wholly 
extinct in the neighborhood, cattle and cattlemen have 
fallen back before the advance of irrigation and railroads, 
of towns with schools and churches, and of planters and 
liome-biiilders. Civilization has laid its liand on the 
Pecos Valley, and a crop of new institutions has begun to 
sprout from its soil. 

The valley is fortunate beyond any other part of the 
Territory in its water supplies. The Pecos river and its 
tributaries drain a vast watershed and furnish a perennial 
How of large dimensions. This has been reinforced by 
huge reservoirs, of which one is the second largest irriga- 
tion reservoir- in the world. Besides these facilities, the 
valley is blessed with extraordinary springs of flowing 
water, with artesian basins, and with underground supplies 
that may be lifted to the surface at comparatively small 
expense. With splendid disregard for immediate finan- 
cial returns, these supplies have been utilized and led 
over the valley by a thousand miles of canals and ditches. 
The same liberal enterprise built a railroad from the 
Texas and Pacific line northward for a distance of two 
hundred miles, and later still farther, to a connection 
with the Santa Fe system, established towns with mod- 
ern facilities, and acquired large tracts of irrigable land. 
These improvements have succeeded one another in rapid 
succession, and cost, in the aggregate, over five million 
dollars. 

Lying in an altitude varying from three thousand to 
three thousand five hundred feet, but in the latitude 
of the extreme south, the Pecos Valley enjoys a good 
climate. Its winters are short and not severe, though 

233 



THE AWAKENING OF NEW MEXICO 

the mercury fiills below freezing and thin ice is formed 
on still wiiter. The summer days are Lot, as throughout 
the Southwest, but the nights are invariably comfortable, 
owing to the elevation of the country, which is on the 
high plateau of the Rocky Mountain region. Fields can 
be cultivated almost continuously and early crops, of 
vegetables and small fruits are grown. The drawback 
about the climate is the wind, which sometimes de- 
velops into sand-storms of considerable severity. With 
the extension of the cultivated area and the growth of. 
trees this disadvantage will be minimized. 

The valley is yet so new to cultivation that it is im- 
possible to determine the limitation of its products. The 
chemical qualities of the soil have been the subject of 
careful study by experts, and gradually the people are 
learning to what uses different districts arc best adapted. 
In the upper portion of the valley, in what is locally 
known as the Roswell country, there are several ranches 
which have been cultivated for many years. These 
have demonstrated beyond question the capabilities of 
soil and climate for the production of the finest apples, 
perfect in form, flavor, and coloring. This fruit is so 
superior to that which is seen in the eastern market 
that there can be no question but what it will be a source 
of profit to the small planters of the region. The lower 
valley seems more favorable to delicate fruits, such as 
peaches and apricots. All the grasses, cereals, and vege- 
tables are successful throughout the length of the valley. 
Sorghum and Egyptian corn are favorite crops, being 
raised for fodder. 

One feature of the country is especially worthy of the 
attention of settlers. This is the fact that the best of 

233 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

free pastures adjoins the irrigable lands on either hand, 
so that fine cattle, sheep, and horses could be. profitably 
raised in connection with the small-farming industry. 
Raising winter fodder on their irrigated acres, the set- 
tlers could readily co-operate in the management of 
their herds during the range season. For the finest 
beef and mutton there is abundant demand at remu- 
nerative prices. 

The latest and most promising industry of the Pecos 
Valley is the sugar-beet culture and manufacture. A 
series of experiments demonstrated that the conditions 
of soil and climate were particularly favorable to the 
growth of beets. It had already been demonstrated in 
Utah that irrigation permits the most scientific culture 
of the crop. As this valley has wanted for nothing that 
money could buy, a sugar factory was erected near Eddy 
in 1890, and the farmers gladly co-operated by planting 
considerable areas to beets. The result of the first year's 
crop put the Pecos Valley at the head of sugar countries 
in the matter of the quality of its production. The gen- 
eral average of all beets delivered at the factory in car- 
load lots showed seventeen ]ier cent, of sugar in the beet, 
with an average purity of over eighty - four per cent. 
This is a higher percentage of actual extraction of 
pounds of sugar to pounds of beets than has been real- 
ized anywhere else in the world. The result points un- 
mistakably to the development of a ^' sugar belt "in this 
region, which will be a striking economic advantage if 
producers do not make the mistake of getting into the 
fatal groove of the single crop, as has been so largely the 
case elsewhere with the growers of wheat, cotton, corn, 
raisins, and oranges. 

???4 



THE AWAKENING OF NEW MEXICO 

The chief town of the valley, formerly Eddy, but now 
called Carlsbad, enjoys a rising popularity as the resort 
of invalids. Valuable medicinal springs have been dis- 
covered, and, in connection with the climate, render the 
locality quite ideal for those suffering wdth certain dis- 
eases. 

The resources of New Mexico, while probably not as 
rich as those of more northerly States, are yet diversified 
and largely undeveloped. The annual output of gold 
and silver is increasing, and seems likely to do so in- 
definitely. A fine quality of coal is found in large 
quantities, and is an important item of regular income. 
The forest area is considerable, and that of woodlands, 
useful for fuel and fencing, much more extensive. The 
mining of precious stones, which dates back to the 
Spanish conquest, is a flourishing and growing industry. 
The turquoise mines are particularly rich and profitable. 
Though the amount of production is closely guarded, it is 
known to be large, while the quality of the stone is quite 
equal to that of Eussia, Persia, and the East Indies. 

The social fabric of the Territory is a curious blend- 
ing of Mexican peons, of town-building Indians, of hardy 
frontiersmen engaged in mining and stock-raising, and 
of enterprising new-comers wdio believe in the future of 
the country. Of these elements the Mexicans are much 
the most numerous. They do not differ materially from 
their kinsmen on the southern side of the Eio Grande. 
Living in scattered settlements along the mountain 
streams, they enjoy a comfortable existence in return for 
their humble labor. The Indian population includes 
the Pueblos, the Zunis, and the Navajos, and is mar- 
vellously interesting, and usually peaceful and industri- 



THE CONQUEST OF AlUD AMERICA 

ons. The growth of the white population has been slow, 
but will increase rapidly with the development of irriga- 
tion and the settlement of vexations problems which 
have long surrounded the land grants and v/ater appro- 
priations. 

New Mexico is one of the American communities 
whose greatness is of the future. V/ell endowed with 
raw materials, it awaits the impulse to be imparted by 
a new century and the pressure of an outreaching civ- 
ilization. 



CHAPTER X 
THE BUDDIXG CIVILIZATION OF ARIZONA 

Arizona is a land apart. With the single exception 
of southeastern California, it differs in many respects 
from all other sections of western America. This is es- 
pecially true of all those portions of the Territory which 
will sustain the densest future population and develop 
the characteristic institutions of the country. 

Speaking of its atmosphere — the product of its pe- 
culiar climatic conditions and physical environment — 
Whitelav/ Reid has said : '' It seems to have about the 
same bracing and exhilarating qualities as the air of the 
Great Sahara Desert in northern Africa, or of the des- 
ert about Mount Sinai, in Arabia. It is much drier 
than in the part of Morocco, Algiers, or Tunis usually 
visited, and drier than any part of the valley of the Nile 
north of the First Cataract. It seems to me about the 
same in quality as the air on the Nile between Assouan 
and Wady-Halfa, but somewhat cooler." 

This description of the Arizona air, which is remark- 
ably happy, may be accepted as a key to the true char- 
acter of the country. It is a semi-tropical desert, like 
the region about the southern and eastern shores of the 
Mediterranean, where civilization was born of the ancient 
art of irrigation. This is said with reference to the 

237 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

soutliern aud western parts of the Territory, which are 
drained by the Gihx and Colorado rivers. IsTorthern x\ri- 
zona is distinguished by its mines, its notable forests, 
and the indescribable grandeurs of the famous Colorado 
canyon. The southeastern quarter, which adjoins New 
Mexico, is a great pasture, bearing scanty or generous 
crops of nutritious wild grasses, according as the season 
is dry or wet. 
^ The Salt River Valley is the glory of Arizona. Ap- 
proaching it from either of the transcontinental rail- 
ways the traveller sees naught but tlie gray desert soil, 
marked by the gnarled branches of the mesquite and the 
slender pillar of the cactus. Even the mountain-sides 
appear to be devoid of verdure and tanned to a dark 
brown by the sunshine of centuries. But suddenly all 
the beauties of the Garden of Eden burst upon the aston- 
ished gaze of the visitor. Wherever the waters of irri- 
gation have moistened the desert, and man has planted 
the seed of grass, flower, or tree, the most luxuriant 
vegetation has sprung from the soil to revolutionize the 
appearance of the country. 

The capital city of Phoenix — risen from the ashes of a 
forgotten people — is the pulsating heart of the new life 
of Arizona. Here are modern business blocks, hand- 
some public buildings, busy stores, a promising uni- 
versity, and hundreds of beautiful homes resting under 
the shade of palm, magnolia, and pei:)per-trees. Tucson 
and Yuma, though thriving and populous, are Mexican 
in architecture and habits. Prescott, Flagstaff, and nu- 
merous other communities in the higher altitude are the 
products of the mining industry. But Phoenix is distinct- 
ly modern, and almost wholly the offspring of irrigation. 

238 



BUDDING CIVILIZATION OF ARIZONA 

Tlie Salt river is the largest tributary of the Gila. It 
has been the scene of active irrigation enterprise since 
18G7, but particularly during the last ten years. It is an 
interesting fact that the works first built followed the 
lines of prehistoric canals. Reclamation has been ex- 
tended to both sides of the valley, but cultivation is 
oldest and much the most extensive on the northern 
side, around Phconix. Here a number of canals were 
consolidated into a single system, the managers of which 
have made improvements and extensions year by year, 
and gradually evolved a work of great perfection and 
completeness. 

On the south side of the river a similar consolidation 
has occurred. Here settlement was begun in 1878 by 
Mormon colonists, who founded the charming place now 
known as Mesa City. There are several independent 
irrigation systems upon this side of the valley, the most 
important of which is the Highland Canal, which runs 
along a high level and waters thirty thousand acres of 
valuable land. Water-power is obtained in connection 
with the irrigation canals on both sides of the valley, 
and electrical power is applied both to lighting and 
transportation. 

Tributaries of the Salt river flowing from the moun- 
tains on the north, notably the Rio Verde and the Agua 
Fria, will furnish water for new and large enterprises. 
Storage is the feature of these works, and reservoirs 
have been constructed in a number of instances. Both 
on the upper and lower courses of the Gila river im- 
portant irrigation canals are planned, and a number 
have been completed. Much difficulty has been experi- 
enced in building enduring dams along this erratic 

239 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

stream. Snddeu and powerful floods sweep down the 
valley during the season of melting snows, and it is the 
nicest engineering problem to make constructions which 
will stand the test. 

Alike in the Gila and Salt river valleys the agricult- 
nral districts suHer for lack of water during the dry 
summer season, when water is most needed. The only 
possible solution of the problem will bo the construction 
of large reservoir systems at the mountain sources of 
the streams. Nature has provided phenomenal facilities 
for such storage works, but the opportunity has not been 
utilized, owing to the large cost involved and to the fact 
that no single company could afford to make improve- 
ments which would be equally beneficial to all who 
draw supplies from these streams. The work is of such 
importance as to justify an expenditure of public money, 
especially as large areas of public lands would be made 
habitable in consequence. 

The enormous water supply which now flows uselessly 
to the Gulf of California through the channel of the Col- 
orado river must be extensively availed of in time. Mor- 
mon settlers have reclaimed small valleys on the Little 
Colorado in the northern part of the Territory, and ex- 
tensive plans, looking to the use of the larger river, have 
beeii made. Thus far the most notable development in 
this region is at Yuma, where water is elevated to the 
heights above the town by pumping machinery. Enough 
has been done in this locality to demonstrate the value 
of the soil and climate for the production of the finest 
fruits, including table grapes, which are laid down in San 
Francisco before the California product is in the market, 
and tlie best varieties of oranges and lemons. 

240 



BUDDING CIVILIZATION OF ARIZONA 

The clima-te of Arizoua varies widely with difTorent 
altitudes. In those portions of the Territory most favor- 
able to settlement, including the Salt river and Gila 
valleys, the summer weather is as trying as the winter is 
ciiarming. People get used to it, but it is rather a dis- 
tressing process. While the summer heat is by no means 
unhealthful or a fatal obstacle to settlement, it is un- 
questionably a serious drawback. 

In the Salt River Valley all classes of fruits have been 
tested sufficiently to furnish reliable conclusions as to 
the range of production. The climate is semi-tropical 
and the products similar to those of the lov/land districts 
of California and the region about the i\Iediterranean. 

The government rejiorts show that the highest and 
lowest temperatures at PhQ3nix averaged for eight years as 
follows : November, 78^ and 42 ; December, 73^ and oG| ; 
January, G5 J and 32 ; February, 71 J and 35-|- ; March, 
8H and 41; April, SG^ and -IG. Orange- trees success- 
fully withstand a temperature of 28° above zero. Hence, 
it is no surprise to tind them growing successfully in the 
Salt River Valley, at Yuma, and clsev/here in central and 
southern Arizona. The determination of the exact lim- 
I its of the citrus belt is a nice problem in any country. A 
I certain elevation above the river, and a certain amount 
I of protection from the wind and from the rising sun 
I are essential. The most favored spots are usually those 
j which are screened from the first rays of the morning 
I sun by a background of eastern hills. This condition 
permits a gradual warming of the atmosphere, so that if 
there has been a slight frost during the night no serious 
damas^e is done to fruit or tree. 

Wherever oranges can be grown at all, the area suitable 
Q 341 

i 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

for their production is likely to be exaggerated by those 
who sell climate by the acre. While the orange districts 
of Arizona are not as yet perfectly defined, there is no 
longer any question of the production of citrus fruit, 
nor as to its quality and the early date at which it ripens. 
Ifc anticipates the southern California crop in the market, 
though not the crop of northern California, which is sev- 
eral weeks ahead of the southern product. 

Wherever the orange can be cultivated, tlie less tender 
semi-tropical fruits — figs, olives, almonds, pomegranates 
— may be certainly counted upon to grow even more sure- 
ly and over a large area. The largest fig orchard in the 
United States, and one of the largest in the world, is 
located in the Salt River Valley. This industry has not 
yet proven profitable, either in Arizona or California, 
speaking broadly, for the reason that our people have 
not entirely mastered the art of curing and packing. 
The other products which have been mentioned are 
thoroughly successful. So also are the finest qualities 
of raisin, wine, and table grapes, and of the deciduous 
fruits, such as peaches, apricots, prunes, pears, and ap- 
ples. All vegetables and small fruits yield largely. With 
better railroad facilities and rates, Arizona Avould be a 
strong competitor of Florida and the West Indies in the 
shipment of early vegetables to eastern and northern 
markets. 

The major proportion of the irrigated land is tilled in 
large farms devoted to grasses and cereals. Alfalfa is 
the favorite fodder crop, and the valleys arc becoming 
great feeding grounds for cattle, horses, hogs, and sheep. 
While this phase of the agricultural industry has been 
prosperous, it by no means represents the better possi- 

242 



BUDDING CIVILIZATION OF ARIZONA 

bilities of Arizona. The conditions of climate, of soil, 
and of irrigation are all extremely favorable to the in- 
tensive cultivation of small areas. 

Ten acres in southern Arizona constitute a good-sized 
farm. Variously planted to vegetables, small fruits, or- 
chard, and grass, and cultivated by the most scientific 
methods, such a farm should yield a far better living, 
and make a surer provision for old age, than one hun- 
dred acres in the eastern and middle States, which 
depend upon rainfall, and consequently produce the 
cheaper class of crops. 

Lacking nothing in general advantages, Arizona is 
deficient in the higher forms of industrial and social 
development, which have made portions of California 
the paradise of the common people, and which are be- 
ginning to shape institutions throughout the arid region. 
The explanation is that the Territory is Just passing 
from the frontier stage into the first period of real civ- 
ilization. The conquest of the desert has been well be- 
gun, and the broad foundation of an intense economic 
life substantially laid. It remains for the future to 
build the superstructure. 

The people of Arizona have been drawn from many 
different sources, and from more than one race, but 
the pushing American element is distinctly dominant. 
While there are many of the lower class of Mexicans, 
they are much less numerous here than in New Mex- 
ico, and much less widely diffused over the Territory. 
The Indians, who are seen everywhere, even in the 
best settled districts, are now mostly inoffensive, and 
even industrious in many cases. Like the Mexican 
peons, they are useful laborers in the simpler agricult- 

243 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

ural tasks. The warlike tribes are closely confined to 
their reservations, and no longer constitute a menace to 
settlement. 

Arizona is developing a spirit of intense local pride as 
marked as that of Colorado. This is the best guaranty 
of its ultimate greatness. It is a good recommendation 
for any country when those who know it best exhibit 
the most confidence in its future. 



iDart ^ouftb 

THE ARMY OF THE HALF-EMPLOYED 

"Your fate I believe to be certain, though it is deferred by a 
pliysical cause. As long as you have a boundless extent of fertile 
and unoccupied land, your laboring population will be far more 
at case than the laboring population of the Old World. But the 
time will come when New England will be as thickly populated as 
the Old World. Wages will be as low and will fluctuate as much 
with you as with us. You will have your Birminghams and 
Manchesters, and in these Birminghams and Mauchesters hundreds 
of thousands of artisans will assuredly be sometime out of work. 
Tlicn your institutions will fairly be brought to the test." — Lord 
Macaulay to an American friend. 



CHAPTER I 
THE SURPLUS PEOPLE 

The settlement of the United States has been largely 
a story of foreign immigration. While the movement 
of population from the Old World to the New has not 
ceased, the settlement of new areas during the coming 
century will be in marked degree a movement of do- 
mestic immigration. Foreign population no longer set- 
tles extensively upon the agricultural lands of the West. 
It remains in the cities of the seaboard, making New 
York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco cosmopolitan 
communities, and submerging the Puritan traditions of 
Boston under a wave of Celtic dominance. It fills the 
coal-mining districts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois 
with Hungarian and Bohemian laborers. It replaces the 
native artisans of New England manufacturing towns 
with Canadians, Italians, and Armenians. It swells the 
population of the Lake Cities, such as Buffalo, Cleve- 
land, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. It is thus that 
the strong current of foreign immigration, which had a 
large part in making the Middle West and gave a pow- 
erful impulse to the growth of interior cities, expends 
itself in these days. 

There is a surplus population chiefly in cities and 
towns east of the Mississippi river. While much has 

247 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

been said of the Army of tlio Unemployed, the flnetiiat- 
ing numbers of the utterly idle is no true measure of our 
surplus population. There is an infinitely larger element 
of half-employed and semi-prosperous, and it is from the 
ranks of these that the colonizing hosts of the future will 
mostly be drawn. The very poor constitute a small ele- 
ment ill all communities, and however urgent their claim 
upon charity, their situation is of far less importance to 
the peace and stability of society than the conditions 
of life and labor for the masses who do the v/orld's 
work. The future civilization is to be discovered at 
neither of the social poles — that of the very rich or that 
of the very poor — but in tlie continental expanse of hu- 
man life that lies between these two extremes. 

The surplus population who will occupy and develop 
the waste-places during the coming century are the men 
and women of overcrowded eastern industries, stores, 
and professions, and, in smaller measure, of unprofitable 
eastern farms. To a very large extent they are of the 
best native stock. Their presence in the ranks of the 
half - employed and semi - prosperous is due to several 
leading causes — to the wonderful invention of labor-sav- 
ing machinery, which does the work of human hands 
without charge for food or clothes ; to the competition 
of foreign immigrants content with less wages and a 
' lower standard of living ; to the concentration of capi- 
tal and the conduct of all lines of business upon so large 
a scale that small men cannot survive in the race with 
them; to the cessation of the rapid settlement of new 
areas in the West, which made constant demands upon 
the products of eastern spindles, looms, and lathes; to 
the natural movement of the greater manufacturing lines 

248 



THE SURPLUS PEOPLE 

from old indastrial centres nearer to raw material and to 
consumers. 

Some of these causes are so well known as to make it 
nnprofitable to do more than barely suggest tlicm, but 
others have not been generally studied in the light of 
causes of future domestic emigration. For instance, it 
is often claimed that invention and labor - saving ma- 
chinery create a demand for as many new workmen as 
they displace. Grant that this is so, and we do not sat- 
isfactorily answer the question as to what is to become of 
the men and women who lose their means of livelihood. 
Some of them are readily absorbed into the new indus- 
tries, but by no means all. One hundred printers may 
be suddenly thrown out of work in a given community 
by the advent of type-setting machines. They cannot all 
turn immediately to employment in a bicycle or automo- 
bile factory. The displaced printers may be in Kansas 
City and the nev/ factories in Baltimore. Besides, it is 
the young mechanic, with no trade and habits to un- 
learn, who is in most demand for the new industry. 

These conditions make life constantly harder for those 
best equipped with experience and most likely to be pos- 
sessed of a little capital in the shape of a home or sav- 
ings-bank deposit — that is, the middle-aged. So it hap- 
pens that the ingenious machine which may lighten the 
cost of an article of common necessity, and by so cheap- 
ening production even cause the enlargement of a factory 
and enhance the prosperity of a given local community, 
almost inevitably creates recruits for the Army of the 
Half-employed. This process has been going on rapidly 
during the past generation, and made thousands of peo- 
ple discontented and apprehensive — hence, ripe for some 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

new movement of colonization like those which, during 
the past two centuries, peopled different sections of the 
United States. For it is ever the intelligent discontented 
who make colonies and plant institutions. 

As with labor-saving machinery, so with the concen- 
tration of capital, which is the phenomenal economic 
movement of the hour. Fifty factories under one con- 
trol ; a few great and attractive stores dealing in all lines 
of merchandise; ten railroad systems consolidated into 
one, and that one stretching its arms from ocean to 
ocean — all this may, and probably does, make for cheaper 
goods and better service, for more scientific business 
methods, and for the progress of civilization in the end. 
But the intermediate process of adjustment to new con- 
ditions is a hardship to multitudes of men and women 
in many ways. It lessens the demands for labor in nu- 
merous local instances, and the result is a large aggre- 
gate of discontent. What is infinitely more important, 
it makes it increasingly difficult for men to lead inde- 
pendent lives and make independent livings. 

The startling and disturbing aspect of our new eco- 
nomic development is the downfall of the small man. 
Modern production demands the large factory and ex- 
pensive machinery ; hence, great capital. Modern trade, 
especially in the principal cities, requires an immense de- 
partment-store, with a host of poorly paid employes; 
hence, great capital. Modern transportation requires 
railroad systems so extended and diffused as to give 
absolute control of a certain territory'; hence, great 
capital. 

When production was conducted upon a small scale 
men of small means found no difficulty in becoming 

250 



THE SURPLUS PEOPLE 

manufacturers. The enterprising shoemaker — to illus- 
trate — could build a little shop in his yard, purchase a 
cheap kit of tools, and manufacture in a small way. If 
he had taste, thrift, and industry, he j)rospered, and 
perhaps built up a large business. The man who did 
that thirty years ago could not hope to do it to-day, 
simply because the conditions are such as to prevent him 
from getting his first foothold. As a petty manufact- 
urer he could not possibly compete wdth the great man- 
ufacturers employing large capital and costly machin- 
ery. His only recourse is to become an employe of a 
richer man or corporation. He is denied even the chance 
to bring himself to the test of the rule of the survival 
of the fittest among employers and manufacturers, be- 
cause he cannot be born into that exclusive family. The^ 
unborn have no opportunity of survival. As with the shoo 
industry, so with most other common lines of production. 

The decline of the small tradesmen in great cities is a 
pitiful, even if familiar, spectacle. Sixth Avenue in 
New York furnishes a luminous instance. This thor- 
oughfare used to be a paradise of small merchants, deal- 
ing in their several lines of goods, and winning a fair 
average prosperity in the midst of lively competition. 
To-day a few great stores stand like monuments in that 
graveyard of small merchants. Competition between 
the old conditions and the new is impossible. 

Even the professions are not exempt from the influ- 
ences which have wrought such changes in the lives of 
small capitalists and skilled workmen. Self-respecting 
young men and women do not willingly and deliberately 
set out upon lives which deny them independence of 
thought and action, and no opj^ortunity to rise except as 

251 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

salaried employes, submissively doing the will of other 
men. Multitudes of them avail themselves of the chances 
of liberal education which benevolence has so plentifully 
scattered over the land. They prepare to win what they 
conceive to be the easy rewards of professional careers 
as lawyers, physicians, teachers, musicians, and so on. 
While there is yet plenty of room at the top, it is much 
easier to find the way to the middle or the bottom of 
the list. The result is a surplus of professional people 
in every walk, especially in cities and towns of our older 
States. Religious journals complain of an over-produc- 
tion even of preachers, ministers, and missionaries. 

Of the fact of surplus people available for the con- 
quest of Undeveloped America there is, therefore, no 
question whatever. Never was there an army better 
equipped or more eager for its task. In character it is 
almost cosmopolitan, but with the strongest Anglo- 
Saxon predominance. It has been educated to a stand- 
ard not dreamed of by any colonizing host of the past, 
thanks to a system- of common and high schools of 
which the latter approximate the university education of 
fifty years ago. Collectively, it is by no means destitute 
of pecuniary resources, for it represents a vast aggregate 
of savings and property. It is animated by tlie moving 
cause of all successful and epoch-making emigrations, 
the desire to better the conditions of living for its indi- 
vidual members. 

So conditioned and equipped, these children of a race 
of world-conquerors and republic-builders — these sur- 
plus men and women of America — stand with their faces 
to the morning of the new century, magnificently fit to 
do the work of their day and generation. 



CHAPTER II 

WHY THE PEOPLE DO NOT GO TO THE LAND 

Flanked upon one side by economic conditions which 
deny them prosperity, and upon the other by great natu- 
ral resources which only await human genius and energy, 
why do not the surplus people go to the surplus land ? 

First and chiefly, because they lack the necessary capi- 
tal. To move across the continent and make a new 
home in a new country requires a working fund of one 
thousand or two thousand dollars — and the latter is much 
the safer sum. It may almost be said that those who 
need to move cannot do so, while those who can move 
do not need to. This is not literally true, because there 
are doubtless thousands of families commanding a capi- 
tal insufficient to enable them to engage in trade or 
manufacture under modern conditions, and likewise in- 
sufficient to yield support when invested, yet quite 
enough to establish them comfortably as settlers on 
irrigated land, j^rovided their capital be supplement- 
ed by the wise use of their own labor. But there are 
thousands — perhaps millions — of families who have ev- 
ery qualification required for successful settlers except 
money. Their ability to perform productive labor is, 
indeed, capital of a most essential kind, but without a 
certain amount of cash it is capital which is unavailable. 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

Popular ignorance of the West is another potent cause 
which keeiDS the willing men aAvay from the waiting 
land. Undeveloped America is a vague and mysterious 
quantity to the masses of our people. It curiously hap- 
pens that they are better informed about Africa and the 
regions of the North Pole. So much as is known about 
these latter localities has been published in attractive 
form and generally read by intelligent people. Then, 
too, somewhat upon the principle that every boy finds 
another's sister more interesting than his own, foreign 
lands have a claim upon the attention of our people su- 
perior to that of our own. It is doubtful if the senior 
class at Harvard or Yale could pass a good examination^ 
as to the history and resources of such mighty States as 
Montana, Idaho, or Nevada, yet there would be little 
risk in asking them for a good account of the lives and 
surroundings of Paul Kruger and Cecil Rhodes, or for 
the details of Nansen's voyage to tlie Pole. If this be 
true of the liberally educated, who are surrounded by 
all facilities for studying the undeveloped parts of their 
own country, no apology need be made for those who 
enjoy no such opportunities. 

But if there is lack of information about the West, 
there is no lack of misinformation. Vast quantities of 
advertising matter have been sent broadcast by railroads, 
land companies, and commercial organizations. This 
class of reading matter has always been prepared in the 
interest of certain localities, and comes under the head 
of ''^boom literature." While some of it has been of 
high character of its kind, the general effect of such ad- 
vertising has been disappointing both to those who issued 
and to those who read it. 

254 



THE PEOPLE AND THE LAND 

What a new country needs is gradual growth and 
sober development of its resources on sound economic 
lines. What a settler wants is a calm and candid state- 
ment of the opportunities existing in the locality tow- 
ards which he is looking, and a perfectly truthful account 
of the experience of the people who preceded him there. 
It is as important for him to know the drawbacks as the 
advantages ; to learn of the failures, and the reasons 
thereof, as of the successes. In the advertising matter 
sent out by interested individuals, companies, and com- 
munities, intending home-seekers get only partial and 
misleading information as a rule. They learn only of 
the advantages of soil, climate, and location. The ex- 
am]3les held up for their consideration are exceptional 
instances of prosperity rather than average results. Of 
the failures and disappointments nothing Avhatever is 
reported. Thus it happens that the masses of our peo- 
ple who would gladly make homes in the undeveloped 
parts of the country suiTer about equally from lack of 
good information and surfeit of misinformation. 

There is another reason which accounts for the back- 
wardness of western settlement, depriving even the class 
who have the financial ability to move of the necessary 
courage and confidence. This is the fact that great 
numbers of people who went West in the past incurred 
failure or disappointment. This is an infiuence which 
may be observed in every eastern State. There is 
scarcely a community which has not sent at least a few 
settlers west who reported later that they were sorry 
they left home. It is true that millions of eastern peo- 
ple have settled between the Mississippi river and the 
Pacific Ocean, and prospered. On the other hand, it is 

355 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

true that other millions have remained in the East and 
failed to prosper. Nevertheless, as failure in tliis line is 
more widely advertised than success, the disappoint- 
ments encountered by families and individuals drawn 
from widely scattered eastern communities constitute a 
most serious obstacle in colonization work. 

What are the causes of failure on the part of eastern 
settlers who started out with high hopes, and frequently 
with abundant capital, to make new homes in the AVest? 
There are a variety of reasons, but they may be broadly 
divided under two heads. There have been numerous 
attempts to realize impracticable dreams of social and 
economic reforms. These were usually undertaken by 
excellent people who sincerely desired to make the world 
better. California has been a favorite field for such 
efforts. Madame Helena Modjeska and a little party 
of her talented compatriots tried to found a social and 
artistic paradise in the vicinity of Los Angeles many 
years ago. They failed because they had no comprehen- 
sion of the prosaic problems of land and water, and were 
unable to do the hard work which success required. 
There was a dress-reform colony v/hich aimed to simplify 
feminine attire, and provided that when its women desired 
new dresses they should submit the matter to a committee 
and be governed by its action. When the committee re- 
ported adversely to any woman's hopes, her male friends 
generally took her part, and it was not long before the 
colony was disbanded. There have been numerous at- 
tempts to realize very advanced ideals of Socialism. Al- 
most without exception these were undertaken with in- 
adequate capital, and failed before they could reach the 
point of possible success, however sound the theory upon 

356 



THE PEOTLE AND THE LAND 

wliich the}^ worked. There is reason to fear that dissen- 
sion and lack of strong leadership might have defeated 
them even if there had been sufficient working capital. 

The aggregate of these unsuccessful dream colonies is 
small, but their influence upon settlement is in inverse 
ratio to their numbers. Such great examples of success- 
ful colonization as we have seen in Colorado, Utah, and 
southern California have commanded far less attention 
than the abortive efforts of little handfuls of people who, 
at different times and places, have tried to found institu- 
tions which were either intrinsically impracticable or 
ahead of their day. Co-operative associations in certain 
parts of the West, doing an annual business of millions of 
dollars, and co-operative industries and stores in Great 
Britain and other European countries which have 
achieved a degree of success even more unquestionable, 
are less known by popular report and apparently less 
influential in the economic life of our times than many 
a little colony of enthusiasts that ended in failure. 
Brook Farm in Massachusetts is a striking instance. 
Volumes have been written upon it, and each successive 
generation of New-Englandcrs will hear of it and smile, 
as their fathers and grandfathers did before them. 

It would be wholly unfair to say that the disappoint- 
ment of settlers is limited to the very few who belonged 
to this class of idealistic colonies. Large numbers of 
people have gone out alone, settled in western cities or 
towns, encountered failure or disappointment, and cither 
returned to their original homes, or advised their friends 
to remain there. 

Those who settled in cities may be disposed of in a 
sentence. Attracted by tcm])orary booms, they found 
R 257 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

that western cities are as overcrowded as those in the 
East. In one respect the condition of business and em- 
ployment is frequently more discouraging in the West. 
Many people in poor health are sent out by their phys- 
icians, and, since they must live in the new country to 
save their lives, are willing to work for any wages they 
can get. This introduces an element of competition in 
the ranks of employment which has a blighting effect 
upon wages. Very few western cities are in need of 
more people to reinforce either their commercial or pro- 
fessional life. There is plenty of room for those who are 
willing to develop and use the vast resources of natural 
wealth — for those who are willing to till the soil, fell the 
forest, and open the mine. There is no demand for more 
young men to measure tape or more young women to run 
type-writers. What is wanted is millions of sturdy men 
and stout-hearted women to conquer the waste places and 
to work for themselves. 

A large proportion of those who went west in recent 
years engaged in the fruit industry. This was painted 
as a sure and easy road to wealth and an ideal occupa- 
tion in the midst of ideal surroundings. The hard work 
and constant vigilance Avhich success in this industry de- 
mands were seldom mentioned in the glowing advertise- 
ments which attracted these settlers. Nothing was said 
of the economic folly of the farmer who buys all he eats 
and sells all he produces. As a natural consequence, 
people who went west, particularly to California, paid 
high prices for their land, waited years for trees to come 
into bearing, and discovered that there could be no profits 
without skill and hard work. They found that there are 
such evils as over-production, high freight charges, and 

258 



THE PEOPLE AND THE LAND 

the extortions of the commission system. Tens of thou- 
sands of people failed in their efforts to make homes in 
the semi-arid regions of the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, 
and Texas because of having neither rain nor irrigation 
facilities to moisten their fields. Tlie isolation of farm- 
life, and the lack of the enjoyments and refinements 
available even to the poor in the older States, have been 
fruitful causes of heart-sickness. 

The chief reasons, then, why the surplus people do not 
go to the surplus lands are that they have not the capital 
to do so ; that they do not know where to go ; that they 
do not know how to organize their industry in order to 
prosper ; that they fear the lack of good society and the 
refinement which this should furnish to them and their 
children. The plan of domestic colonization which shall 
be of broad and enduring effect, and so give to the nation 
the incalculable gains which may be won from the devel- 
opment and use of its waste resources, must solve all 
these problems. Nothing short of this will meet the de- 
mand and open the gates of the West to the vast mul- 
titude who would gladly enter at this wide portal if they 
could believe that economic independence lay beyond. 



CHAPTER III 
COLONIZATION^ WITH CO-OPEllATIVE CAPITAL 

The problem of making homes in the West for the 
masses is the problem of bringing together surplus land, 
surplus labor, and surplus capital. The first two factors 
have been discussed in previous chapters. It remains 
to consider the question of surplus capital and of its 
utilization in connection with the conquest of unused 
natural resources. 

Of the fact of surplus capital there is, of course, no 
more question than of the fact of surplus land or the 
fact of surplus labor. Just as there are great areas of 
unemployed land and great numbers of half-employed 
people, so there are vast amounts of idle and unpro- 
ductive, or of half-employed, capital all over the United 
States and in foreign countries. The difficulty is that 
those who own the land do not possess the necessary 
labor, and that those who have the labor do not possess 
the necessary capital. Each of these factors is impotent 
without both of the others. To bring them together 
upon a basis of mutual security and profit is to solve so- 
cial and economic questions of world-wide extent and 
importance. 

The evils of over-population, and the consequent fierce 
struggle for existence, are not peculiar to the United 

2G0 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

States, one of the newest of nations. They are com- 
mon to nearly all other countries. Nor is this the only 
continent which offers an inviting field for expansion 
and development. The same problems and the same op- 
portunities, capable of solution and of use by the same 
methods, exist everywhere. If it be possible to effect 
colonization by means of co-operative capital in western 
America, then it is equally possible to do the same in 
Africa, Australia, and the Orient. If this method will 
open a door of escape for the swarming populations of 
Boston, New York, and Chicago, it will accomplish the 
same result for the over -crowded people of London, 
Paris, and Rome. 

Looking at the matter in the light of its world-wide 
possibilities, we see at once that if capital is to be em- 
ployed in the work of colonization apart from its own- 
ers, as is done in railroads and other industrial enter- 
prises, it must be employed upon the soundest, business 
principles. These principles must be applicable to a 
great variety of conditions — to different kinds of people, 
of soil, of climate, of markets, of surrounding resources. 
First of all, there must be security. Second, there must 
be earning capacity at least equal to the demands of cur- 
rent interest on safe investments. Any plan that falls 
short of this will not meet the exigency. 

Our settler has only his labor to start with. He must 
, buy land of one man and borrow capital of another. Then 
he must pay for both with the proceeds arising from the 
wise use of the land he has bought and the money he 
has borrowed, plus the capacity to labor, which was his 
only original capital. The element of charity cannot 
enter into the matter at all. Philanthropy in its true 

261 



• THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

sense — concern for the welfare of mankind — may furnish 
an impulse to such a work, as it has done for many 
another business enterprise, such as life insurance, 
building and loan associations, and workingmen's hotels. 
But these enterprises rest on sound and enduring business 
principles, or they could not long exist or widely extend. 
Wo must find equally sound and enduring business prin- 
ciples upon which to rest the idea of colonization by 
means of co-operative capital, or it can contribute noth- 
ing of value to the progress of civilization. 

In the seventeen western States and Territories there 
are to-day eight million acres of fertile land lying under 
completed irrigation systems. There are millions more 
lying under half-finished works. They represent an un- 
productive investment, counting interest charges, of two 
hundred to three hundred million dollars. The chief 
reasons for the fact that they are not utilized by those 
who need them have been stated in the foregoing chap- 
ter. Additional reasons are the unsatisfactory condi- 
tion of water-rights in numerous instances, and the pop- 
ular prejudice against arid lands. These lands have 
every element of potential value. They have the pe- 
culiar fertility arising from aridity, as described upon 
scientific authority in an early chapter of this book. 
They are fortunate alike in climate and in the surround- 
ing resources of mine, forest, and grazing lands. They 
represent the highest productive capacity upon the small- 
est area, and are thus capable of sustaining the densest 
agricultural population. All these conditions make 
these lands extremely valuable, but only in case the cap- 
ital and labor be supplied to awaken their sleeping po- 
tentialities. 

263 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

Here is a field whicli stands ready and waiting. The 
costly work of preparation was done during a speculative 
era, when it was believed that it was only necessary to 
build reservoirs and canals in order to induce a stampede 
of settlers to the newly reclaimed regions comparable to 
that which peopled a State in Oklahoma almost in a 
night. But those who reckoned thus did not understand 
certain fundamental differences between the humid and 
arid regions, and how these differences affected not 
merely the process of colonization, but the habits, cus- 
toms, and institutions of the people engaged in the work. 
As the irrigation speculation of the early nineties turned 
out, it seems almost as if a special Providence had pro- 
vided a field for co-operative colonization, and then per- 
mitted it to lie fallow until men should see the light. 

There are plenty of surplus people who would gladly 
occuj)y these surplus lands. The missing link is the 
necessary capital. Supposing this be supplied and the 
willing people sent forth upon their task, what are the 
elements of security and the sources of profit for the 
capital which must be employed ? 

First, there is security in the land and water sup- 
ply. This is of the most permanent and stable charac- 
ter. It cannot burn up, nor blow away, nor be stolen, 
nor does it deteriorate with use. It grows more valua- 
ble with the passing years, with development, with the 
increasing pressure of population. The improvements 
made upon it are likewise fixed in character. Every 
dollar of money and every hour of labor expended upon 
the land remain there, permanent and inalienable addi- 
tions to the value of the property. 

There is a second element of security not inferior to 

263 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

the land itself. It is the element of human labor. This 
is the soul of the security, as land and water are its physi- 
cal body. Labor is the creative force which alone gives 
value to any form of security. Behind government and 
municipal bonds is the labor of bodies politic. Behind 
railroad and other industrial stocks and bonds is the labor 
of an army of employes. Behind co-operative coloniza- 
tion bonds would be the labor of earnest men and women, 
selected for their intelligjcnce, industry, and ambition — 
of men and women working under competent leadership 
to make homes and achieve independence for themselves 
and their children. There can be no better security than 
good irrigated land occupied by industrious people under 
these conditions. 

The foregoing statements apply with equal force to 
the question of earning capacity. There is no failure of 
crops upon irrigated lands when cultivated. There never 
will or can be such failure until water forgets to run 
down hill and the earth forgets to yield her increase. 
The productive capacity of irrigated lands, under the 
conditions of soil and climate obtaining in the arid 
regions, is superior to that of any other lands. Under 
the industrial plan outlined in the following chapter it 
is impossible for the colonists to fail of a living. Under 
that plan it is likewise imj^ossible for them to fail of 
a surplus above a living, sufficient to earn interest and 
make regular contributions to the sinking fund upon the 
basis of such a capitalization as is ample for the under- 
taking. 

We have here, then, in the irrigated but idle valleys of 
the West, all the elements of a first-class security, includ- 
ing the capacity to earn profits and pay off the principal. 

264 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

We have, first, a great investment wliich has prepared 
the land for occupancy; then, fertile kind and reliable 
water supply ; intelligent and interested labor to do the 
work; the improvements made by the use of the labor 
and capital. The very important question of wise and 
honest administration of the enterprise is dealt with in 
a subsequent chapter. 

Having considered the general principles of invest- 
ment which enter into the problem, we are now ready to 
discuss its details. The lands and works required for the 
undertaking should be purchased on the shrewdest busi- 
ness terms. They can generally be had for at most the 
amount of the original investment, and often for a good 
deal less. In many cases a large part of the investment 
has been eliminated by foreclosure, and it is only neces- 
sary to reimburse the bondholders, or those who bought 
at forced sale. There is no occasion, therefore, for the 
settlers to pay a sum which would represent a profit upon 
the lands and works. If they pay six per cent, upon th© 
capital borrowed to acquire and develop the property on 
the favorable terms now possible, they can readily com- 
mand all the capital needed for future operations. The 
price of lands would vary in different parts of the West, 
ranging from five to twenty dollars per acre. This would 
include the appurtenant irrigation systems and perpetual 
water-rights. With labor and capital to develop them 
under wise plans and good leadership, these lands and 
imj^rovemcnts would soon have a value, on the basis of 
earning capacity, of fifty to one hundred dollars per acre, 
and in some instances much more. 

The cost of transporting settlers from their present to 
their new homes should be borne by themselves or friends. 

265 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

It would not be a legitimate use of the investment fund. 
What is paid for land, labor, and resulting improvements 
remains as a permanent part of the security and facilities 
of production. But every dollar paid for moving people 
and household goods is lost and can add nothing to se- 
curity or income. Labor supplies should be drawn from 
the nearest point where available, or if brought from a 
distance should bear their own transportation charges. 

The first expenditure of the investment fund, after 
paying for the land, would necessarily be for shelter ; the 
next for implements and live stock, seed, and fruit-trees. 
After that the entire fund would be available for labor 
and its maintenance. This labor would be used to clear 
and plant the land and bring it to the highest possible 
stage of production. Settlers in the West build com- 
fortable houses for two or three hundred dollars, and even 
less. Many a prosperous colonist points to a shanty in 
the shadow of a comfortable residence which is full of 
interest to him as a monument to his humble start. He 
and his family built it with their own hands, perhaps 
paying no more than fifty dollars for the materials. It is 
amazing how comfortable a family can be in the poorest 
shelter when they think they see property and financial 
Independence a few years ahead of them. It is not profit- 
able to go into all the items of cost in detail, since con- 
ditions vary with different localities, but it may be said 
that one thousand dollars per family would be the mini- 
mum and two thousand dollars per family the maximum 
sum to be provided where settlers drew their entire capi- 
tal from the investment fund. Farms should not be 
smaller than ten acres, nor larger than forty, and twenty 
acres would be a reasonable average. 

266 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

It is liighly necessary to set apart a certain proportion 
of the investment fund — say ten per cent. — to be nsed by 
the colony for common purposes. They should own and 
improve the town-site and have the profits arising there- 
from. We have seen the benefits of this plan in the his- 
tory of Horace G-reeley's famous Colorado colony. They 
should own various small industries, the possession of 
which represents the difference between large profits and 
small ones for their labor and crops ; the difference be- 
tween selling finished product and selling raw material ; 
the difference between commercial independence and de- 
pendence. They should own or control range facilities, 
that they may engage in the remunerative cattle and 
sheep industries. In many cases they will find it profit- 
able to cut and manufacture their own lumber. No single 
thing can contribute so much to their independence and 
prosperity, and, consequently, to their peace and happi- 
ness, as a fund available for those things which are beyond 
the reach of the individual, yet highly essential to the 
individual as a part of the community. The manage- 
ment of this common fund and the various properties to 
be created with it is dwelt upon in the next chapter. 

Returning now to the financial proposition, we see that 
the settler who borrows one thousand dollars to improve 
a twenty-acre farm incurs an obligation of fifty dollars 
per acre. A part of this he has paid for land, and an- 
other part contributed to the colony fund for the general 
purposes. The balance is an improvement fund, availa- 
ble to bring his farm to a productive state. If he is to 
pay back his borrowed capital in ten years, and pay six 
per cent, interest in the mean time, he must have three 
dollars per acre each year for interest and five dollars per 

207 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

acre for the sinking fund. In other words, he must 
earn and lay aside the net sum of eight dollars per acre 
over and above the cost of his living. No one familiar 
with the productive capacity of irrigated land, and with 
the markets which fortunately surround nearly every fer- 
tile valley in the arid region, will doubt that this is easily 
possible. But by what methods can this result be best 
assured ? Is the average settler drawn from the urban 
life of the East able to expend his borrowed capital and 
direct his untrained energies surely to this end ? Will 
the investor bo willing to trust him to do so ? Both 
questions may be emphatically answered in the negative. 
How, then, is the thing to be done ? 

The labor is handled as a unit. While each man is 
working for himself ho does not work lij himself. Ho 
works in co-operation with his fellows, under the direc- 
tion of expert superintendence, at least until all the 
farms have been brought successfully through the pre- 
liminary stage to a paying condition, and until the de- 
mands of intensive cultivation make it more profitable 
for each man to devote his time largely to his own 
place. This is only reducing to a science the method of 
^'swapping work" which already prevails in new coun- 
tries — that is, where there are a number of settlers, they 
help each other in clearing lands, building houses, and, 
later, in planting and harvesting crops. They find it 
profitable to do this, especially in the early years of their 
settlement, because there are so many things to be done 
about a farm which are beyond the strength of a single 
individual. By helping each other the work of all is 
done expeditiously, without cash outlay for hired hands. 
It is the old story of more economical production and 

2nf^ 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

less waste by doing things on a large scale instead of a 
small one. 

The advantages which settlers obtain by the crude 
method of *' swapjoing work " among themselves would 
be vastly greater in tlie case of co-operative colonists 
working with sufficient capital under trained leadership. 
In clearing, planting, and reaping they would be able to 
use machinery too expensive for one small farm, but very 
cheap indeed when the expense is divided among many 
small farms. The quality of their work and the esprit 
do corps would be much higher. It would represent the 
difference between a regiment and a mob. Raw recruits 
would soon become as effective as the best-trained farm- 
ers under this teaching and discipline. But the chief 
advantage would be the financial one. This would result 
from the prevention of waste of money, time, and ener- 
gies which characterizes individual settlement, especially 
where the conditions of industry are so new to most of 
our race and nationality as they are in the land of irriga- 
tion. It would result also from the fact that those who 
had furnished capital for the work would be able, through 
their representatives, to keep their hands on the purse- 
strings, and so control and direct the expenditure of 
their money to the accomplishment of their ends — the 
making of productive homes which will enable the bor- 
rowers to pay interest regularly and principal at maturity. 

If the labor is to be handled as a unit and the settlers 
to work under guidance, by what method is the improve- 
ment fund to be made available for them, and how are 
the investors to be assured of the proper collection of 
their share of the proceeds arising from the joint use of 
the land, labor, and capital ? 

2G9 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

The improvement fund is paid out regularly each week 
or month in the form of wages. Out of these wages the 
settler pays a regular sum each month, equivalent, at the 
end of the year, to six per cent, interest on the amount 
he has borrowed. After the first year he would be re- 
quired to make an additional monthly payment into the 
sinking fund, equal, at the end of the year, to ten per 
cent, of his borrowed capital. But after the first year 
the settler has something besides his wages on which to 
depend for his payments. 

All the profits of the work above fixed charges are 
credited to the settlers in proportion to their wages, 
which are supposed to fairly measure the value of their 
work. The fixed charges are cost of labor and materials 
and six per cent, interest on the capital employed. The 
profits above these charges should be large and increase 
with each year, especially as trees come in bearing. It 
is for the settler's interest to have these profits begin as 
soon and grow as large as possible, since they are all ap- 
plied to the reduction of his debt. The accumulations 
of the sinking fund are ajoplied by trustees to good in- 
vestments, in connection with the colony, such as cattle 
or sheep, the erection of needed industries, or the pro- 
vision of facilities for the sale and distribution of prod- 
ucts. If circumstances permitted, the entire borrowed 
capital could be paid off before the time of its maturity, 
or the money retained for profitable use in other ways, 
as seemed best to those charged with the care of the in- 
vestment. 

Wages vary with different occupations, but common 
labor would receive thirty to forty dollars per month, 
out of which the family living woukl be paid. An ad- 

270 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

difcional charge would be made for life insurance, to pro- 
tect both the loan and the settler's family in case of 
death. It is not expected that the wages will be such 
as to provide for anything except the bare necessities of 
life. The co-operative settler must be economical and 
thrifty and work hard. It is not a case for the eight- 
hour day. Men who are working for themselves rather 
than for other men can afford to work long hours, as has 
been done by most of those who have made themselves 
independent. An incidental advantage of handling the 
labor as a unit under good management is that it can be 
employed effectively throughout the year in developing 
the colony and its surrounding resources, which is not 
generally the case with individual settlers. 

There are two other striking advantages wliich result 
from preserving the solidarity of both the labor and the 
capital under this plan. All the suj)plies consumed by 
the community, from potatoes to mowing-machines, can 
be purchased at wholesale and at a great saving of cost. 
Then the products of the land can be sold under a sino-le 
management and in large quantities. The result is a 
great saving in the cost of living and a better net result 
in selling. Both of these things enhance the settler's 
prosperity and enable him to repay his borrowed capital 
the sooner. It is not expected that all settlers Avill pay 
out in the same time. Some will do so years earlier than 
others, because more economical and ambitious. In 
fixing the term of the loan at ten years, the maximum 
period is taken. 

In estimating the settler's ability to repay borrowed 
capital, one thousand dollars is taken as the unit of 
the loan, and twenty acres as the unit of the farm. 

271 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

When the loan is twice the amount the farm will be 
double the size. In the former case the annual in- 
terest charge is sixty dollars, and the contribution to 
sinking fund one hundred dollars, or a total of one hun- 
dred and sixty dollars per year. To meet these charges, 
as has already been pointed out, profits and savings 
from wages must be equal to eight dollars per acre. It 
is the problem of the management to make the labor 
produce the amount of its moderate wage and something 
in excess. Careful estimates lead to the conclusion that 
five dollars per month, or sixty dollars per year, is all 
that need be deducted from the wages of the settler who 
borrows one thousand dollars on twenty acres, and that 
ten dollars per month would be deducted from the wages 
of the settler who borrowed two thousand dollars on 
forty acres. It seems to be perfectly safe to count upon 
a net annual profit of five dollars per acre to make up 
the balance of one hundred dollars on the twenty-acre 
farm, and of two hundred dollars on the forty-acre farm. 
Considering the immense advantages arising from the 
purchase of supplies at wholesale, the sale of products in 
large quantities, and from working under able and expert 
management, this would appear to be a reasonable and 
conservative calculation. 

This chapter is intended to treat only of the utilization 
of surplus capital in making homes for surplus people 
upon surplus lands. It touches upon the employment 
and organization of labor only so far as necessary to 
show how the capital may be used, conserved, compen- 
sated, and finally repaid. 

The use of co-operative capital in making homes for 

those who live and work in cities and towns is well 

970 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

known. There are nearly five thousand building and 
loan associations in the United States. They have more 
than one million six hundred thousand members, and 
a paid-in capital, gathered mostly in very small sums, of 
over six hundred million dollars. They have put roofs 
over the heads of two hundred and sixty thousand Amer- 
ican families. 

Both for the lender and the borrower colonization 
with co-operative capital is safer and better than urban 
liouse-buildiug with co-operative capital. A twenty-acre 
irrigated farm, with an industrious family working upon 
it under good direction, is better security for a loan than 
a twenty-five foot lot in the suburbs of New York with 
a house upon it. It is such because of its greater and 
more certain productive capacity, and because the man 
who has borrowed the money to make a farm is more 
certain of employment than ho who has borrowed merely 
to build a house. 

The man who borrows to build the house is usually 
dependent upon others for his living, in the sense that 
he is employed to work for wages. His income may bo 
interrupted at any moment by the strike, the lockout, 
or financial panic. His employer may die or become 
insolvent. A new labor-saving machine or a new ship- 
load of Italian immigrants may send him into the streets. 
When he gets old the house does not sustain him. When 
he dies it does not sustain his loved ones. 

The man who borrows to make a home on the irri- 
gated lands of the West works for himself and cannot 
be discharged. He is on the road to complete eco- 
nomic independence. Even in hard times he is sure of 
his living. Labor-saving machinery works for him and 
8 273 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

not against him. The coming of new swarms of foreign 
immigrants into the cities does not alarm him, for he 
feeds and clothes them. When he has passed the years 
of greatest activity the kindly soil goes on producing, 
and constitutes his old-age pension. When he dies the 
soil still continues to produce and to support his fam- 
ily, for it is his life-insurance policy. Viewed from every 
stand-point, co-operative capital can be employed to bet- 
ter advantage in colony -making than in urban house- 
building. Financially, economically, and socially — it may 
not be extravagant even to say politically — the results 
will be better and more far-reaching. 

The City and Suburban Homes Company of New 
York, under the successful presidency of Dr. Elgin R. 
L. Gould, with the generous financial backing of some 
of the wealthiest citizens of New York, as well as of 
many small investors, is erecting model tenements in 
the great city and making model country homes in its 
suburbs. AVhile the motive of this work is philan- 
thropic, the method is distinctly commercial. It pays 
five per cent, dividends, yet serves the highest social 
purposes. Mr. D. 0. Mills builds workingmen's hotels, 
and his praises are upon the lips of thousands who have 
enjoyed their comfortable shelter, yet he makes them 
pay four per cent, as regularly as government bonds. 
Many other instances of the safe and profitable use of 
capital in ways which benefit mankind might be quoted. 
1/ There lies the beautiful West, with room for one hun- 
' dred million people. The people are in 'existence, and 
need the lands as badly as the lands need them. But 
their hands are tied. Only capital can untie them, and 
at the same time unlock the stores of natural wealth now 

274 



CO-OPERATIVE CAPITAL 

imprisoned in desert soil and forest and mountain. 
Without co-operative capital the people cannot move, 
and without co-operative industry it would be idle for 
them to do so. It is not only new settlers for new lands 
that are wanted, but jiqw institutions for new times. 



CHAPTER IV 
COLONY PLANS AND INSTITUTIONS 

If surplus labor and capital are to be directed to the 
systematic development of surplus lands, they must work 
upon well-considered industrial and social plans and 
create institutions adapted to the times and the sur- 
roundings. 

We have seen how the famous colonies of Colorado, 
Utah, and southern California were thoughtfully planned 
by their founders, how well they succeeded, and how 
their success exerted a wide and beneficent influence 
upon the regions in which they were planted. In our 
brief references to Holland we have observed the effect 
of natural environment upon the habits and institutions 
of the people, not only in their industry, but also in 
their society, and perhaps in their politics. In our study 
of irrigation as an economic force we have seen how im- 
periously it compels the small-farm unit, with its correl- 
ative effect of near neighbors and social advantages ; how 
it commands the organization and association of labor in 
large ways, yet favors individual proprietorship of the 
many small units of land which make up the aggregate 
of a successful community. These are our landmarks in 
planning the wise use of land and labor and capital in 
the fertile valleys of the Far West. 

276 



COLONY PLANS AND INSTITUTIONS 

Before we can satisfy capital we must show that there 
are security and earning capacity. In like manner there 
are certain fundamental requirements essential to sat- 
isfy labor. There are three things which human beings 
want — first, the certainty of a living, which includes 
food, clothing, and shelter ; second, surplus means above 
a living for the improvement of the home, the educa- 
tion of the children, and provision against old age ; 
third, satisfaction for the social instincts. These three 
things are as necessary to the contentment of labor as 
security and interest are vital to the satisfaction of 
capital. 

The corner-stone of the colony's industrial system is 
the small, diversified farm, producing the variety of 
things which the family and community consume. 

AVe have seen how the Mormon farmers prospered for 
fifty years by following this plan. They lived well in 
good times and bad, kept out of debt, and steadily ac- 
cumulated a surplus to invest in banks, factories, stores, 
and temples. In certain years they would have realized 
laro^er cash returns if their lands had been exclusivelv 
devoted to corn, wheat, or hops. Southerners speculate 
in cotton ; middle-westerners in grain ; Californians in 
fruit. They enjoy brief periods of flood -tide, but at 
least half the time the tide is running out, and at reg- 
ular intervals they find themselves stranded on the rocks 
and shoals left by its ebb. In the long run the Mor- 
mon workers have distanced them by steadfast adherence 
to the policy of collecting their living first from the soil, 
and having a surplus afterwards to dispose of in the 
markets. It is beyond question, then, that self-suffi- 
ciency is the first essential of a true industrial system in 

277 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

the arid region. Nothing should be purchased for cash 
which can be economically bought with labor. 

Every valley of the West is surrounded by large and 
growing home markets, in the way of lumber and min- 
ing camps and railroad towns. Not a single State be- 
yond the Rockies raises enough agricultural products to 
supply its own wants. The trade of the Pacific Ocean is 
expanding by strides and bounds. Under these fortu- 
nate circumstances it is an easy matter to plan profitable 
lines of industry for new colonies. 

There are three lines of production which should be 
systematically followed, having first been carefully adapt- 
ed to local conditions of soil, climate, and surrounding 
markets. These lines are as follows : First, the things 
consumed by the farmers themselves ; second, the things 
now imported, but capable of home production ; third, 
the things which distant communities consume but can- 
not produce, which will therefore bear the burden of 
transportation and are susceptible of profitable export. 
The first list consists of what the community eats, wears, 
and uses for shelter, or in its arts and industries. The 
second list includes almost everything grown from the 
soil or manufactured by skilled labor and machinery. 
It also includes poultry and dairy products and cured 
meats. The third list varies with different localities. 
The semi-tropical parts of California and Arizona find 
their surplus for export in oranges, lemons, olives, and 
fresh and dried fruits of all deciduous kinds. The 
more temperate regions in the West export the hardier 
fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, and prunes. Fer- 
tile valleys, surrounded by Uncle Sam's great free past- 
ures, produce a surplus of cattle and sheep, hides and wool. 

278 



COLONY PLANS AND INSTITUTIONS 

Great sources of future profit may be found in a va- 
riety of simple industries, which demand only cheap 
machinery and a small amount of skilled labor. These 
are such industries as every small colony may have if 
possessed of a common fund for industrial purposes. 
They include creameries, canneries, pork - packeries, 
starch factories, and the like. Lumber and planing- 
mills, and various other small industries closely related 
to the life of an agricultural community, are also profit- 
able and wholly feasible under these plans. Time and 
prosperity, with their gradual accretion of men of talent 
and experience, would open the way for the larger and 
more complicated industries, as they did among the 
Mormons. Wool and hides should not forever be shipped 
to Boston, and cloth and shoes forever imported from 
that place, so remote from all the raw materials it uses. 
If no capital were available except the savings of trans- 
continental freight, it would build many shoe factories 
and woollen mills in the regions where wool and hides 
are cheaply produced, and where millions must always be 
clothed and shod. 

Having shown how labor may be employed so that it 
can never fail of its living, nor of a surplus above its 
living sufficient for the reasonable demands of human 
beings, we come now to the question of the organization 
and management of labor. 

The system of labor should rest upon the indepen- 
dence of the individual. All that he can well and effec- 
tively do for himself he should be permitted to do. Such 
advantages as he may win by individual thrift, industry, 
and skill he is entitled to obtain and enjoy and to trans- 
mit to his children. He should not suffer from the in- 

279 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

dolence or incompetence of other men, or ask others to 
pay the penalty of his own shortcomings. The individ- 
ual home, family, and farm constitute the unit of indus- 
try and society in the colony. But there is a sphere be- 
yond the reach of the individual. 

It is impossible for each small capitalist and proprietor 
to maintain his own store, so that he may purchase sup- 
plies to the best advantage ; to operate his own selling 
agency, so that he may dispose of surplus products in 
the best markets and on the best terms ; to erect and 
conduct his own industrial plants, so that he may con- 
dense and manufacture raw products into the most mar- 
ketable form ; to purchase and manage a large stock- 
ranch, so that he may pasture and fatten a small herd of 
cattle or flock of sheep. All these things require capital, 
special knowledge, and an amount and kind of labor which 
the individual and his family do not usually possess. 

We have passed from the sphere of the single man or 
family to that of associated man. It demands the use 
of the aggregate capital of the community and the wise 
orsranization of labor. We must now have either com- 
petition or co-operation — competition, in which the few 
of large capital shall employ and exploit the many ; or co- 
operation, in which the many shall organize their capital 
and their labor for mutual advantage and protection. 

We may now a2)ply the larger lessons learned from the 
Mormon system of stock companies, from the fruit ex- 
changes of California, and from the co-operative societies 
of Europe. The modern corporation, and even the mod- 
ern trust, point the way to prosperity for the army of 
producers who will occupy the now vacant West in the 
coming century. These are simply a means of combin- 

280 



COLONY PLANS AND INSTITUTIONS 

ing the capital of many owners so that they may accom- 
plish collectively what could not be done as well, or at 
all, individually. The advantages of this method are 
now so generally recognized that it is unnecessary to 
dwell upon them. It is important to remark, however, 
that the expert ability which a corporation with large 
capital can command, and the saving of waste which it 
can effect by eliminating competition and doing things 
upon a large scale, is as vital to a colony as to a railroad, 
a gas company, or a group of sugar refineries. The prin- 
ciple upon which aggregations of large capital are made 
applies as well to aggregations of small capital. 

The colony capital should be handled by a local com- 
pany owning the town-site, store, industries, and such 
other properties as experience proves to be useful and 
profitable to the community. In this company all of the 
colonists would be equal stockholders at the beginning, 
and every safeguard should bo erected to make transfers 
of stock as difficult as possible, since it is desired to pre- 
serve equality of ownership in everything which is be- 
yond the sphere of strictly individual control. So long 
as the settlers are under obligations to the founding cap- 
ital — which will be until they have paid oif their loans — 
the trustees of this capital will control the local company 
and its operations, as also the labor and land. The man- 
ner and advantages of this control are discussed in the 
next chapter. 

We have, then, a community composed of a multitude 
of small landed proprietors working for themselves, under 
the direction of superior ability and experience, and equip- 
ped with sufficient working capital for both their private 
and public enterprises. It is an organized community, 

281 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

operated upon industrial plans thoroughly vindicated by 
the experience of the arid region during the past half- 
century. The financial plan does not differ materially 
from that of building and loan associations, nor the plan 
of conducting stores and industries from that of the suc- 
cessful co-operative institutions of Great Britain. There 
is nothing novel or experimental in the plan as a whole, 
except the application of old and proved principles to 
new conditions. 

The project of co-operative colonization sometimes 
incurs the criticism of Socialists, on the ground that it 
does not provide a sure method of preserving equality 
in men's possessions. The fear is expressed that the abler, 
thriftier, and more grasping among the settlers will grad- 
ually acquire large means and make their fellows pay 
tribute to them. Such a result would be theoretically 
possible, but is hardly a practical danger. Though the 
twenty -acre irrigated farm has never yet produced a 
pauper, neither has it grown a millionaire, nor any- 
thing approaching a capitalist of ominous proportions. 
The tendency in colonies where irrigation is used, as we 
saw in an early chapter of this book, is towards the di- 
vision of lands rather than in the direction of acquiring 
more. It is difficult to see how Socialism would give to 
an agricultural population any important advantages 
over this plan of co-operation, which preserves individ- 
ual independence while providing for the solidarity of 
the community. 

We come now to the social side of colony institutions. 
We have seen how the isolation of country life has 
driven multitudes to the already crowded cities. In the 
history of the most successful settlements ever made on 

282 



COLONY PLANS AND INSTITUTIONS 

irrigated land we have observed a simple method of 
giving to the owners of small farms most of the advan- 
tages of town life. This is accomjolished by assembling 
their homes in village centres with outlying farms. This 
is an old custom in Europe, is the most universal plan 
in Utah, and has been adopted in many other western 
localities. It is not free from drawbacks, and should 
not be made obligatory upon the settlers, but experience 
has proven that in much the greater portion of the year 
the advantages are decidedly in favor of living in the 
town. 

Most men are willing to consult the convenience and 
happiness of their families as much as their own. When 
they do this they realize what it is worth to have neighbors 
close at hand, and to live near to the school, church, 
store, post-office, and all else so essential to civilized 
life. The farmers who live in the town have the bene- 
fit of clubs, libraries, and various forms of instruction 
and entertainment. They and their families enjoy a 
full and rounded life compared with the lean existence 
of those whose society is mostly limited to quadrupeds. 
The farmer's village home must be ample. Not less 
than an acre is really satisfactory, but this is quite suffi- 
cient, considering that the farm is distant but a few 
minutes' drive, and that he participates in facilities else- 
where for the care of live-stock, if he has any consider- 
able number. Furthermore, the farmer is interested in 
the growth of the town-site, and the more it gains in 
population and appearance the more he will realize from 
the sale of its business and residence lots. 

A colony needs no political institutions other than 
those ordained by the State in which it is located. Bub 

283 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

tlie stockholders' meetings should be frequent and largely 
attended, resembling a town-meeting in New England. 
The colonists should advise about all their affairs, and 
exercise control in everything Avhich does not affect 
the security of the founding capital. After the prelim- 
inary period of development is passed and the loans 
paid off, they will, of course, have absolute control of 
everything. But before this stage is reached they will 
have served a good apprenticeship under competent and 
sympathetic leaders, and have gradually grown up to 
the full size of their opportunities and responsibilities. 
Their town-meetings will furnish a parliamentary train- 
ing of no mean value, especially to the young, as has 
been the case in New England. All should serve upon 
committees, and so gain personal familiarity with every 
phase of the colony business. These committees should 
be very numerous, and members should be rotated, so as 
to give them experience upon each. 

Who shall estimate the future influence in the life of 
America and the world of a generation reared under such 
conditions and in the midst of such surroundings ? 



CHAPTER V 
THE ADMINISTRATIOiq' OF CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

GiVEK favorable location, industrious settlers, and 
abundant capital, there is yet another element absolute- 
ly essential to the success of co-operative colonization. 
This is able and honest management. Good leadership 
is as necessary as sound principles, and executive capacity 
at the head as vital as earnest and faithful labor in the 
ranks. 

This is the teaching of all past experience, not only in 
colonization effort, but in all co-operative undertakings, 
especially where capital has been supplied by one class 
for the use of another. The leadership required is of a 
rarer quality than that usually found at the head of 
financial and industrial enterprises. It calls not mere- 
ly for brains, experience, and special aptitude, but for 
devotion, and almost for consecration, as well. There 
must be heart as well as head in the management of such 
affairs. A man with only large human sympathies 
would not succeed, but neither would a man with only 
business acumen. Both qualities are required for the 
successful management of men and money in a work 
which aims at the production of homes and institutions 
along with dividends. 

When such leadership has been secured it should l^e 

285 



' THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

given full control. It should have the power and be held 
to the responsibility. This responsibility should not be 
divided among subordinates, still less shared with the 
rank and file. The leader has placed in his hands, say, 
one hundred thousand dollars, and the destinies of one 
hundred families. The care of the money is an impor- 
tant trust, but the care of the families is a more sacred 
responsibility. The man who is willing and able to 
assume the burden of such a task should have the power 
necessary to its accomplishment, and the praise or blame 
which will follow the result. No man fit for the work 
would undertake it upon any other conditions. But the 
chief reason for vesting control in superior and responsi- 
ble leadership is the welfare of the peo]3le themselves. 

Almost without exception successful colonies have 
been ruled with the strong hand. Sometimes the power 
proceeded from religious superstition or fanaticism, 
sometimes from financial or legal obligation, and some- 
times from sheer force of genius on the leader's part; 
but, without exception, the colonies which have succeeded 
have worked under one guiding brain and hand, while 
those that have failed did so through the dissensions and 
incompetency of the general membership. This has not 
been peculiar to our race and country, but to all races 
and countries. It was true of Plymouth, New Amster- 
dam, and Jamestown. It was pre-eminently true of the 
Utah settlements, and only a little less so of those of 
Colorado and California. It is worth while to glance 
briefly at recent foreign efforts to observe the working of 
the same principle. 

Soon after the close of the Napoleonic wars, eighty 
years ago, the streets and roads of Holland were filled 

286 



CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

with idle and homeless veterans. A certain Dutch sfeneral 
suggested the employment of this labor in reclaiming 
agricultural lands and creating farms and homes, believ- 
ing that it would be better to help the workless to inde- 
pendence than to extend charity. From this suggestion 
camo the Beggar Colonies, and subsequently the Free 
Colonies, which have ever since absorbed the surplus 
labor of Holland. They have graduated thousands from 
beggary to tenantry, from tenantry to proprietorship. 

The enterprise is purely governmental, and under the 
rigid control of able and responsible men. The man who 
asks for alms is taken to the Beggar Colonies and put at 
work. If he will not work he is flogged until he does, or 
until he escapes across the boundary of the industrious 
little nation which has no patience with the wilfully idle. 
In this beneficent colony the people are systematically 
taught the art of agriculture. After five years, if they 
have proven earnest and intelligent, they are transferred 
to the Free Colonies, where they are supplied with a very 
small farm and the necessary implements and live-stock, 
and with a house and lot in the village. They are given 
ample time in which to pay for the property, and charged 
very low interest on the nse of the capital. The jolan 
has been a financial, economic, and social success. The 
result is unquestionably due to the fact that men of 
superior intelligence and experience made the plan and 
administered it to the last detail up to the moment when 
the settler became a full-fledged proprietor. 

The experience of the German government in dividing 
and settling with small farmers great landed estates in 
Prussian Poland furnishes an equally striking illustra- 
tion. This work was undertaken for the triple purpose 

287 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

of relieving the congestion of cities, staying the decline 
of rural life, and preventing the further emigration of 
useful citizens to foreign jDarts. It is practically a gov- 
ernment enterprise, conducted through a system of laud- 
banks. 

When the owner of a large estate desires to sell, the 
government sends a commission to examine and report 
upon its fitness for colonization. If the report is favor- 
able the land-bank buys the estate with an issue of bonds, 
which the government has guaranteed. A part of the 
fund is paid to the owner and another part reserved to 
assist settlers. All the work of subdivision, drainage, 
and other preparation for settlement is done by the gov- 
ernment, even to the erection of houses and other build- 
ings. Successful applicants are supplied with seed, live- 
stock, and provisions until their farms become self-sus- 
taining. They are asked only to repay the actual cost of 
their homes and farms and low interest on the invest- 
ment, the payments extending over many years. In 
the mean time the bonds are secured by lands and im- 
provements. The control of the entire enterprise, from 
start to finish, is held in firm and experienced hands, and 
it is needless to say that these colonies are successful. 

Australia furnishes an instance of a different kind. 
Young as it is, its chief cities already feel the pressure of 
over-population. Such was the case with Adelaide, the 
capital of South Australia, in 1894. 

In that year the Parliament of South Australia passed 
the Village Settlement Bill, setting apart for coloniza- 
tion certain arid public lands on the Murray river. The 
measure provided for an advance of two hundred and 
fifty dollars for each member of the colony, but vested 

288 



CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

the management largely in the settlers themselves. They 
were to be accompanied by a government official, but his 
power Avas that of moral influence rather than of legal 
authority. Under tliis plan several settlements were 
started, and for a time seemed to promise excellent re- 
sults. But the most recent information the writer has 
been able to obtain is to the effect that the colonies 
went to pieces upon the rock of internal dissension, as 
has so often been the case in the absence of strong, re- 
sponsible leadership. 

The experience of the Chaffey Brothers, of California, 
who went to Australia to found colonies at the request 
of the government, was quite similar. As long as the 
people worked upon plans the projectors had learned 
from their valuable experience in California, and accept- 
ed direction, they prospered. AVhen the people took 
full control for themselves, dissension and demoraliza- 
tion quickly ensued, to be followed by disappointment, 
and at least partial defeat. 

Wherever the conditions of settlement were such as 
to call for organized industry and society, all experience 
teaches the absolute need of superior brains and charac- 
ter at the head of affairs. This is not strikingly true of 
the settlement of the vast country between the Alleghany 
and the Eocky Mountains during the past one hundred 
years. In that case both the locality and the times 
favored individual effort. But the waste-places which 
remain to be conquered, not only in the United States, 
but in nearly all other parts of the world, present con- 
ditions which demand the association and organization 
of botli labor and capital. ' Even if physical conditions 
did not make this demand, existing economic facts would 
T 289 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

be equally imperative. The small capitalists and pro- 
ducers must choose between organizing themselves and 
being crushed by the organizations of other men. 

Recnrring to the matter of co-operative colonization, 
we see that colonies cannot be made without capital ; 
that capital cannot be had without security and divi- 
dends ; that security and dividends cannot be assnred 
without able and experienced management ; that able 
and experienced management cannot be obtained with- 
out absolute authority in all essential matters, at least 
while the farms, industries, and institutions are in the 
formative stage and working npon borrowed means. 
Thus the conclusion is forced upon us, alike by world- 
wide experience in colonization eHort, by economic con- 
ditions of the time, and by the consideration of the de- 
mands which capital will justly make before Iciuling 
itself to such enterprises, that the road to independence 
for surplus people on surplus lands lies first through the 
field of discipline, obedience, and submission to the au- 
thority of some form of administration. 

What should this form of administration be ? In Hol- 
land and Germany we have seen the power exercised by 
the government, and in Utah by the church. In the 
colonial days of the Atlantic coast it was exercised by 
civil government closely dominated by the church and, 
even more extensively, by chartered companies formed 
for the purpose of colonization and development. Where 
colonies have succeeded without guidance from govern- 
ment, church, or chartered companies, the result has 
been due to the ascendency of extraordinary men, and, 
more rarely, to the character, spirit, and temperament 
of the people themselves. These latter instances furnish 

200 



CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

no light for our present problem, since capital will not 
invest upon the mere chance of finding extraordinary 
men or colonists of rare character and spirit. 

The current history of Ireland furnishes us with a les- 
son of great importance. In that countr}^ economic im- 
provement has recently superseded political agitation in 
the popular mind. The result is an industrial and social 
uplift which has not yet attracted the world-wide atten- 
tion it deserves. The movement is the result of the 
earnest labors of the lliglit Hon. Horace Plunkett, Mr. 
Thomas P. Gill, Mr. R. A. Anderson, and their colleagues 
in the Irish Agricultural Organization Society. Their 
methods are not exactly parallel to those which could be 
used in the settlement of a new country, but the only 
difference is that which obtains between building a new 
house and rebuilding an old one. 

Before the present movement was started Ireland was 
about as hopeless a place for the small farmer as could 
be discovered uj^on the map of the world. Those who 
produced the wealth from the soil bought their provisions 
and sold their crops to the poorest possible advantage, 
and borrowed money at crushing rates of interest. Their 
natural markets were occupied by Belgian, Dutch, and 
French farmers, who had been so fortunate as to learn 
at an earlier day the value of organization on co-oper- 
ative lines. In the face of much opposition on the part 
of his countrymen, especially of the professional poli- 
ticians, Mr. Plunkett set out upon the career of indus- 
trial reformer and up-builder. Knowing Ireland by heart, 
and thoroughly informed of the methods and results of 
co-operation in other countries, he set out upon a cru- 
sade for the industrial regeneration of his countrymen. 

391 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

He urged the virtues of the higher agriculture, the bene- 
fits of organization for the purchase of supplies and sale 
of products, and the incidental social advantages to be 
gained through commercial co-operation. He preached 
to the lord in his castle as well as to the peasant in his 
cottage. He urged upon the rich the duty they owed to 
their country and their fellow-men, calling upon them to 
give of their means, their education, and their experience, 
in organizing the people to use labor, capital, and land to 
better advantage. The movement strictly avoids politics, 
but has brought representatives of all other elements of 
Irish life into the great society of which Mr. Plunkett is 
president and Mr. Anderson secretary. 

The society has dotted the map of Ireland with co- 
operative institutions of every kind. Its own relation 
to these institutions is not that of stockholder or man- 
ager, but is purely advisory and paternal. The society 
sends out lecturers to talk to the people and show them 
the way to prosperity. It publishes books, pamphlets, 
and an entertaining weekly newspaper. It supplies ex- 
perts to conduct experimental farms, establish and equip 
various small industries, organize commercial associa- 
tions, and supervise tlie bookkeeping of the various en- 
terprises. In a word, it puts at the disposal of the poor 
farmers of Ireland the brains and experience of superior 
men. Working with the benefit of these brains and ex- 
perience, a population which once seemed the most dis- 
couraged and hopeless in Europe is rising steadily and 
grandly in the industrial and social scale. 

It is borrowing from village banks, at four per cent, 
annual interest, money which it formerly had of usurers 
at two to five per cent, a niontb. It has smashed the ring 



\ 



CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

which formerly made its own exorbitant price for fertil- 
izer, and now buys this material, so necessary to the pro- 
ductiveness of the Irish soil, at wholesale rates. It mar- 
kets its products in large lots in the best markets, and, 
to some extent, dictates the cost of transportation. It 
raises more various and profitable crops, and converts 
them into finished product in its own factories. It fur- 
nishes itself with co-operative credit, so that it is possi- 
ble to prevent the sacrifice of products for ready money 
and to hold them until the market is most favorable. As 
an inevitable consequence of this remarkable industrial 
uplift, the social and intellectual life of the people is 
steadily rising. 

It is impossible in this brief reference to the work of 
Mr, Plunkett and his associates to even hint at all the 
ways in which they are striving to show their country- 
men that the road to prosperity lies through co-opera- 
tion. Already the economic gain is vast, and the prom- 
ise even more so. It goes almost without saying that 
the results will be such as to prevent the further de- 
population of the island by misery and famine, and per- 
haps even to recall thousands of its sons and daughters 
from over the sea. 

Ireland had no problem of reclaiming and settling new 
lands. Her vexed question was how to make comfort- 
able and happy the people who already crowded her 
small territory. But the experience which has been re- 
ferred to illustrates two points wholly pertinent to this 
chapter — the virtues of organized production and ex- 
change, and the necessity of enlightened and devoted 
leadership. 

We may go back to the seventeenth century and get 

293 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

light for a portion of oiir present problem from the his- 
tory of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Chartered by 
royal grant and given possession of large tracts of vir- 
gin land, mostly covered with dense forests, this com- 
pany planned settlements that still flourish. It laid out 
colonies, or '^ plantations," obtained and organized par- 
tics of settlers, appointed leaders, developed trade, planted 
institutions. The economic conditions of that day dif- 
fered so widely from those now prevailing that we can 
learn from this experience only the abstract advantages 
of good leadership and a willing following. But the or- 
ganization which should do to-day for the surplus peo- 
ple of the Atlantic coast and the surplus lands of the 
Far West what the Massachusetts Bay Company did for 
the surplus people of England and the surplus lands of 
New England nearly three hundred years ago, would in 
some respects follow closely upon the lines of its distin- 
guished prototype. 

After this hasty but world-wide glance at the experi- 
ence of the past, we are prepared to consider what is re- 
quired for the successful administration of a broad work 
of co-operative settlement in the waste-places, partic- 
ularly of our own continent. 

The people of the United States are not yet ready to 
have their government engage in a work pertaining so 
closely to the lives and fortunes of a few thousand, or hun- 
dreds of thousands, out of their many millions. There 
would be great opposition to the use of the national means 
or credit in founding homes, industries, or society for a 
comparatively few. On the other hand, it is not in ac- 
cord with our best traditions or the genius of our institu- 
tions that it should be done by a church, or by any num- 

294 



CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

ber of chnrches, nor that it should be undertaken as a 
matter of charity. It is work for such a company as Dr, 
E. R. L. Gould founded in New York to build comfort- 
able suburban homes for those who could gradually pay 
for them. It is a work worthy to command such popular 
support as Mr. Plunkett has won for his cause in Ire- 
land. It is a work which calls for a combination of busi- 
ness sagacity, administrative talent, and humanitarian 
impulses. 

An organization which should meet the present needs 
of the American people in this respect, and rise to its 
full opportunity, would acquire as much of the idle irri- 
gation property in the West as was needed for its pur- 
pose, and might gradually absorb the larger portion of 
such properties. It would prepare to found colonies in 
different localities capable of expansion, so that after a 
time its plans would be in operation under different con- 
ditions of climate, soil, and markets. It would demon- 
strate the demand for its existence by receiving appli- 
cations from indefinite thousands of good families, who 
would be glad to put their labor against necessary land 
and capital. It would set apart from its property, by 
deeding outright to a responsible trustee, such of its 
lands as were best adapted to settlement, issuing against 
tliese lands bonds bearing six per cent, interest and fall- 
ing due in ten years. Thus these bonds would be spe- 
cifically secured upon the lands to the improvement of 
which the labor and capital would be applied, and would 
have the further guaranty of an organization owning 
valuable property created by former investments. 

The organization would then proceed to obtain its set- 
tlers by a process of careful selection and conduct them 

295 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

to the colonies. It would intrnst the work of adminis- 
tration to men of great ability and experience, who 
would systematically direct the labor to the highest im- 
provement of the land and the speediest repayment of 
the capital. In a previous chapter we have seen the in- 
dustrial and social organization of the colony, the man- 
agement of the labor, the sources of profit, and the method 
of paying interest and gradually providing for the sink- 
ing fund from wages and profits. 

This plan meets every requirement of the situation, 
and will solve the problem of bringing together the sur- 
plus land, labor, and capital, if the writer's deductions 
from the world's experience are correct. No other plan 
seems feasible for this time, this people, and this country. 

It is necessary to say a closing word under this head 
to those who will object to the feature of a strong con- 
trol of the colonists on the ground that it is not demo- 
cratic, and that it violates the true spirit of co-operation. 

The whole history of the past shows that those who 
set out upon the work of colony -building must make 
themselves amenable to leadership in order to succeed. 
The writer regrets that this conclusion has been forced 
upon him as the result of patient studies of colonial 
effort in our own and in foreign countries. It would 
be far more agreeable to say that all the j^eople need is 
sufficient capital, then access to the land, and that when 
these are provided they are perfectly capable of work- 
ing out their ov/n salvation. But such is not the fact. 
They will waste their time and squander their resources 
in learning how not to do it. They will fall into hope- 
less dissensions, break up into warring factions, and so 
defeat their own precious ends. They will set the stamp 

296 



CO-OPERATIVE SETTLEMENT 

of failure upon the very institutions tliey are so anxious 
to establish and perpetuate. They will even set back for 
a time the development of the only portion of the United 
States which now invites them to homes and indepen- 
dence. 

The time may come when all men will bo equal finan- 
cially, intellectually, morally, and socially. It has not 
come yet. The many must still seek the leading of the 
few, and happy are they who can receive it under con- 
ditions which guarantee to them the full fruits of their 
individual labor in small things and of their co-operative 
work and capital in largo things. 

A colony, under modern conditions, is an organized 
community. Whatever is organized requires competent 
leaders and obedient followers. No man who followed 
Dowey at Manila, or Roosevelt to the heights of San 
Juan, was ashamed to take the commands of his superior 
officer. Neither in the capital city of the Philippines 
nor upon the rugged hills of Cuba were there prizes so 
precious to humanity as those which lie fallow in the 
voiceless valleys of the West. The man who will not in- 
cur discipline to plant his flag upon the shores of pros- 
perity or the heights of success deserves no better fate 
than to be trampled under the feet of his stronger fel- 
lows in the struggle for ejcistence. The pride which will 
not serve in the ranks is a pride that will never wear the 
star or the epaulet. 



CHAPTER VI 
ADJUSTIiq"G OLD IDEALS TO NEW CONDITIONS 

We have now scanned the wide field open to domes- 
tic expansion and considered the methods by which it 
may be conquered and occupied by the masses of our 
people. We have observed the character of institutions 
which are growing up in conformity to the physical con- 
ditions and environment of the West, and have dwelt 
upon the amplification and extension of these industrial 
and social principles as the means of planting a wide- 
spread civilization in the vast regions to be colonized in 
the future. 

It remains to ask ourselves these vital questions : Do 
these methods and institutions accord with the traditions 
and economic ideals of the dominant race ? Are .they 
suited to the changed conditions under which we live 
and to the fateful struggle between machinery and capi- 
tal on one hand and individual man on the other ? 

We have dealt with our subject almost exclusively 
from the stand-point of agriculture. It has been truth- 
fully said that *'the farmer is the only necessary man.'' 
Agcriculture is the foundation of civilization. The insti- 
tutions of every people are chiefly influenced by the man- 
ner in which the soil is owned. The race which sprang 
from the Saxons has always clung closely to the ideal of 

298 



OLD IDEALS AND NEW CONDITIONS 

individual proprietorship. When this race phmted itself 
in England it immediately took firm possession of the soil. 
It was thus that it was able to overcome the Celts, to 
absorb the Angles, to buy off and then repel the Danes, 
and even to survive the Norman conquerors. 

When tlie children of the Saxon farmers and small 
tradesmen first settled in America they proceeded to 
make immediate provision against the possibility of land- 
lordism and great estates. They did this by rejecting the 
law of primogeniture, by distributing the land equally 
among all the children of the deceased, and by mak- 
ing transfers of land among the living as easy as pos- 
sible. So they rooted their democracy in the owner- 
ship of the soil. Individual proprietors owned homes 
and farms, and rose or fell according to their thrift and 
industry, or their lack of these qualities. Individual in- 
itiative was left untrammelled, yet in things beyond the 
reach of the one man the colonists acted upon a plan 
of natural and simple co-operation. Fishing was their 
first industry, and here they worked in groups, each man 
sharing the catch in proportion to the value of his ser- 
vice. The social and religious life of the community 
was highly organized for the time and place. 

The tendencies of development in the West, and the 
definite plans of colonization suggested in previous chap- 
ters of this book, are distinctly in line with the traditions 
of the Anglo-Saxon race so far as land ownership is con- 
cerned. There are, and there are to be yet more in the 
future, vast multitudes of men secure in the possession 
of small landed estates. These men are free to use their 
land as they see fit, and to have the exclusive enjoyment 
of the fruits of their own labor. They do not depend 

299 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

upon the community, but the community depends upon 
til em. 

Social science has clearly demonstrated that when condi- 
tions encourage dependence upon the community or State, 
self-reliance and individual ambition and energy diminish 
in proportion, and that this result inevitably lessens the 
power of the State to assist those who are more and more 
inclined to lean upon it. There is no such danger in this 
programme of social progress. ^' The only necessary man" 
is here entirely dependent upon himself. The community 
will neitlier water his lands nor reap his crops. He works 
or ho perishes. He thrives according to his intelligence 
and industry, or fails to thrive because of his ignorance 
and sloth. For his ignorance and sloth he is himself solely 
responsible, because he has the facilities of a good educa- 
tion and every incentive to intelligent and regular labor. 
The community of which such men are the units is cer- 
tain to be healthy and strong, because their independence 
and prosperity will constantly feed rather than draw upon 
it. 

In providing for the co-operative ownership of stores, 
factories, commercial associations, and other instrumen- 
talities of manufacture, distribution, and exchange, do Ave 
depart from the traditions of the race ? If so, it is not 
the race nor its ideals which have changed, but the con- 
ditions of industry and commerce. 

The settlers of the seventeenth century, and even of 
fifty years ago, had little need of co-operative industries. 
Their women spun the flax and wove the wool. Their 
men made the shoes and furniture. Their relations to 
outside trade and industry were very slight. They took 
from their fields, their woodlands, and their herds nearly 

300 



OLD IDEALS AND NEW CONDITIONS 

nil which they used for food, clothing, and shelter. In 
almost nothing did they pass beyond the sphere of the 
individual man. 

To-day expensive machinery manufactures in great 
factories what the simple tools and crude art of the fore- 
fathers supplied. Every part of the world is in close 
touch with every other part, and all production beyond 
the power of the individual man must be organized 
either as a private, a public, or a co-operative enterprise. 
The choice lies in the servitude of the masses to great 
emj^loyers and their transformation into a kind of fac- 
tory peasantry, or in state Socialism, or in proprietor- 
ship vested in a multitude of small shareholders. Which 
of these three most nearly accords to Anglo-Saxon habit, 
thought, and ideals ? 

Clearly it is the third method, since the fundamental 

idea of this race and people has always been that each 
man is entitled to the fruits of his labor. The ideal is 
that each man shall receive exactly what he produces — 
no more, no less. Under the conditions prevailing be- 
fore the advent of labor-saving machinery and the ac- 
cumulation of great private fortunes, it was not diffi- 
cult to realize this supreme aspiration of our race. But 
in planning new institutions it is highly essential to take 
the changed conditions into account. 

If the operation of stores, factories, and other lines of 
business requiring large capital is left to purely private 
enterprise, it is impossible for the vast majority of men 
to obtain and enjoy the full fruits of their own labor. 
Massachusetts industrial statistics show that the aver- 
age product of the factory - worker in that State is 
about two thousand dollars, and the average wage less 

801 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

than five hundred dollars. It is thus apparent that the 
operative produces four times as much as he receives, 
and that three-fourths of the fruits of his labor is used 
to feed, clothe, and educate other rnen^s children rather 
than his own. This result is not due to the greed or in- 
humanity of employing capitalists, but is the natural re- 
sult of individual enterprise under modern business con- 
ditions. 

A system which transfers to a few the fruits of labor 
performed by the many is a system which should not de- 
liberately be chosen as a part of the economic struct- 
ure we are planning for regions which remain almost 
wholly to be settled in the future. Wise men do not 
repeat the blunders of their fathers when the evil con- 
sequences have become apparent. 

Socialism, though it may be the ultimate goal, is a 
remedy for which the world is not yet prepared, and least 
of all the Anglo-Saxon world. The present strength 
of its propaganda is not among those who speak the 
English tongue. We may admit the evils of unrestrained 
individualism applied to large enterprises under the new 
business conditions, without flying to a system which 
obliterates the individual. The surpassing virility of 
our race and people in economic and political ways is 
doubtless largely due to the scope which their institu- 
tions have permitted to private initiative, energy, and 
ambition. AVe cannot safely take these essential quali- 
ties out of our life. They are more necessary to the de- 
velopment of new countries than to the established rou- 
tine of old communities. 

What is needed is a true adjustment of the relations 
of individual to associated man. Socialism cannot fur- 

302 



OLD IDEALS AND NEW CONDITIONS 

nisli the solution of this problem until education and 
Christianity shall have vastly raised the common stand- 
ard of intelligence and morals. Under Socialism some 
men would receive more than the fruits of their labor, 
while others would receive less. This result would be 
due not only to differences of talent, but of industry 
and character. The divine injunction was, ^^ In the 
sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," not, '^In the 
sweat of other men's faces shalt thou eat bread," nor 
even, '"'Partly in the sweat of other men's faces." Jus- 
tice is satisfied, according to the Anglo-Saxon ideal, 
when men are given equal opportunities. Neither So- 
cialism nor unrestricted private control of large indus- 
trial affairs meets this fundamental condition under the 
circumstances of modern life. 

Let us see how co-operative enterprise adjusts itself to 
all the circumstances of the business situation, as well as 
to the racial tradition so precious to our people. 

In the operation of a factory there are the two neces- 
sary elements of capital and labor — the one representing 
buildings, machinery, and working funds ; the other, 
productive power. Under co-operation the capital is 
supplied by a largo number of shareholders who have 
saved the money from the proceeds of their own labor. 
It is perfectly true tliat *' capital is stored labor," but 
tlie problem is to have it stored in the hands of those 
who performed it. Just here is the essential difference 
between the private and the co-operative factory. The 
former is mostly capitalized by those who organized and 
exploited the labor of others, Avhile the latter is capital- 
ized by those who actually worked and saved, so that 
their factory investment represents the fruits of their 

303 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

labor, and they are as mncli entitled to receive its con- 
tinuous results as if they had invested it in poultry or 
cows. 

It is neither necessary nor desirable that stockholdings 
in such an enterprise be exactly equal, since men differ 
both in their earning and their saving capacities. The 
important consideration is that all shall have the same 
opportunity to earn, to save, to invest, and to reap the 
reward of investment. Private enterprise denies men 
this opportunity and restricts it exclusively to those who 
have large capital, generally acquired by exploiting the 
labor or taking advantage of the necessities of others. 
Co-operative enterprise opens the door to all and permits 
every man to participate in the profits of those industries 
which are beyond the reach of ii] dividual strength or 
capital. It is easy to erect safeguards to prevent control 
from falling into the hands of a few individuals. 

Co-operation shares its profits with labor as justly as 
with capital. While the wage-scale must necessarily con- 
form to the world^s standard in cost of production, the 
worker has the opportunity to invest his savings in the 
industry and to share in a premium paid to ail who at- 
tain a quality of work above a fixed standard. Skilled 
labor must receive higher pay than unskilled, and men 
fitted by ability, knowledge, and experience to fill places 
of high responsibility must command the same wages in 
co-operative as in private employment. 

Co-operation thus furnishes a method by which the 
masses of men may obtain the benefits of labor - saving 
machinery and of modern production upon a large scale 
and preserve themselves from degradation or ruin at the 
hands of those new economic forces. It is a method 

301 



OLD IDEALS AND NEW CONDITIONS 

which adjusts itself to the old ideal of individual in- 
dependence and of giving the laborer the full fruit of 
his toil, yet provides for that economic solidarity which 
forms so conspicuous and reasonable a part of the de- 
mands of radical social reformers. In this case, unlike 
Socialism, solidarity is effected without weakening the 
power of tlio community by first weakening the power 
of the individuals who compose the community. 

Oo-operation is no idle dream or vague speculation. 
It is one of the fixed facts in the world's economy. In 
one form or another it flourishes in many countries, but 
it has found most fertile soil among English-speaking 
peoples. Reference has already been made to what has 
been accomplished in Utah and in Ireland among agri- 
cultural populations, and by building and loan societies 
in cities and towns throughout the United States. In 
England co-operation has assumed enormous proportions, 
and is extending rapidly in every direction. It conducts 
stores, farms, and all varieties of shops, factories, and 
mills. In some instances it even maintains railroad and 
steamshij) lines. It has surplus profits to invest in new 
enterprises, in model town and suburban homes for the 
workers, and even in a delightful summer retreat for 
convalescents among the Scottish Highlands. Mr. Henry 
D. Lloyd's recent book on Labor CopartnersMp did much 
to enlighten the world concerning the wonderful but si- 
lent movement which is enabling the British masses to 
help themselves and each other along the upward path 
of improved social and industrial conditions. 

The growth of co-operative fruit exchanges in Califor- 
nia is another luminous instance which goes to prove the 
capacity of our race to settle its own problems through 
u 305 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

associative effort. These exchanges are doing an annual 
business of many millions and performing the various 
functions of collecting, packing, shipping, and marketing 
a vast product over a large area. They were the out- 
growth of conditions which had become intolerable, and 
furnish further interesting proof of the fact that when 
an intelligent and self-reliant people have suffered suf- 
ficiently they will find the way out. 

In the plan of co-operative settlement outlined in a 
previous chapter, attention was chiefly directed to agri- 
culture and small industries closely related to the soil. 
The same business principles are applicable to larger in- 
dustrial plants and to the utilization of natural wealth 
other than the land. With co-operative capital and la- 
bor, valuable forests, quarries, and mines of both base 
and precious metals could be made to yield their profits 
for the enrichment of the many rather than of the few. 
But this movement is yet in its early stages, struggling 
to vindicate the truth of its fundamental principle of 
the combination of surplus land, labor, and natural re- 
sources under conditions which furnish security and 
profits to each. Its horizon will constantly expand until 
it shall include the world-wide sky. 

The common objection to co-operation is that it does 
not furnish the ultimate remedy for all social ills. It is 
said that it will do little good to put a thousand com- 
peting co-operative factories and farms in place of a 
thousand competing private factories and farms. In the 
first place, it is a gain to have the profits of industry and 
trade distributed more evenly throughout the commu- 
nity. In the second place, when competition and over- 
production shall lead to the federation of co-operative in- 

806 



I 



OLD IDEALS AND NEW CONDITIONS 

clustry, as is already the case with private enterprise, the 
resQlt can only operate to the benefit of the masses. A 
trust or series of trusts which should include the entire 
public would be wholly harmless, since it would be organ- 
ized for the people rather than against them. 

It is not important to speculate as to what lies beyond 
co-operation. The thing itself is a distinct forward de- 
velopment in the work of economic evolution. It comes 
as the natural product of a wonderful era of competition, 
which has ended in the union of competitors as the 
price of self-preservation. During the closing years of 
the nineteenth century Capital has taught Labor the great 
lessons of combination, association, and organization. It 
remains for Labor to pat these lessons into practical 
effect during the twentietli century, and to make that 
period luminous with the rise of the common man. 



CHAPTER VII 
LOOKING FORWARD TO THE GREATER REPUBLIC 

Imagin'E the Republic of the twentieth century, till 
its magnificent resources under process of development 
on lines of enlightened co-operation, approved alike by 
the sane business sense and the humanitarian instincts of 
the people ! 

Behold the out-swinging gates of the West, opening at 
last the wealth of surplus resources to the throngs of 
surplus people — the gates unlocked by the magic of sur- 
plus capital ! 

See how the ^^ uneasy" have "planted new colonies," 
as Edward Eggleston said they did in all past stages of 
the American emigration; how, under the impulse of this 
new forward march, the Republic has again surpassed 
the monarchies of the Old World "witli giant strides," 
as Andrew Carnegie has shown that it did in a past 
era; how "the desert has blossomed with the homes of 
men," as Thomas B. Reed predicted ; and then observe 
how all these things have defeated the grim prophecy of 
Lord Macaulay ! But the material triumph is only the 
poorest aspect of the new achievement. 

Here are millions of free men who live upon their 
own soil, under their own roofs, and work for them- 
selves. Here is a society which has mastered the ma- 

308 



LOOKING TO THE GREATER REPUBLIC 

chine and made it work for man rather than against 
him. Here is a people who have organized capital so 
that it works for the many rather than the few. 

Here is the finest flower of Anglo-Saxon civilization, 
with personal independence and ambition still preserved 
as the robust inspiration of all progress, but with every- 
thing beyond the sphere of the individual firmly held 
by associated man. 

Here are communities which have averted catastrophe 
by adjusting old ideals to new conditions — by building 
their economic edifice on the three foundation-stones of 
private ownership of homes and farms, co-operative 
ownership of stores and industries, and public owner- 
ship of public utilities. 

Instead of crowded cities festering with vice and pov- 
erty, throughout Arid America are farms that blend into 
beautiful towns, and towns that shade almost impercepti- 
bly into peaceful farms. Here are country people who 
enjoy all the advantages of town life, and townspeople 
who know the independence of the country. Here are 
social conditions where the entire population enjoys the 
privileges of the club and the blessings of the public 
library. 

Here are schools and colleges training young men and 
women not only in the arts and sciences, but in the 
equally valuable lessons of co-operative production and 
administration. 

In a word, here is America, under the powerful domi- 
nance of the ancient Saxon spirit, engaged in the con- 
quest of its waste-places and the making of new forms 
of civilization worthy of the race, the place, and the age. 

In this vision of the future there is nothing impracti- 

309 



THE CONQUEST OF ARID AMERICA 

cable. The field, the opportunity, and the people are 
ready. The hour is ripe for the advance. The silent 
command that speaks to men's minds through resistless 
economic forces has gone forth. 

The American people will press on, not through blood- 
shed or violent change, bat wisely, patiently, and surely 
— by gradual industrial and social evolution — to the real- 
ization of their great destiny, 

That destiny is to illustrate the highest possibilities of 
democratic institutions. 



APPENDIX 



NOTE AS TO METHODS OF IRRIGATION 

To those who are unfamiliar with the life of the arid region 
the actual process of irrigation seems a deep mystery. They 
regard it as an effort to overturn the laws of nature, and 
think it must be accompanied by a struggle as severe as it is 
inscrutable. But irrigation is, after all, a perfectly natural, 
and even a familiar, process. The man who waters his plat 
of grass and the woman who waters her door-yard pansies 
are irrigators in a rude and humble way. The citizen who 
grumbles at the sight of withered lawns in a public park 
during a dry summer yearns for irrigation without knowing 
it. A generation which has harnessed the lightning should 
see nothing incongruous in the ancient expedient of storing 
the rain and distributing it to meet the varying needs of 
plants which nourish human life. 

The control of water for irrigation in the West presents 
about the same problems to the engineer as the control of 
water for domestic purposes in large cities and towns. The 
water must be diverted from a flowinof stream at a level suf- 
ficiently high to command the territory to be irrigated ; or it 
must be impounded in reservoirs at a season of floods or un- 
usual flow, such as occurs everywhere when the ice and snow 
are melting; or it must be sought in the bowels of the earth 
by means of wells and lifted to the surface by pumps, except 

311 



APPENDIX 

in the case of artesian waters, which flow out of the mouth of 
the well by reason of their own pressure. 

The principal difference between securing a supply for do- 
mestic and for agricultural purposes is that in the case of the 
former the water must be as pure as possible, while in the 
case of the latter the impurities which gather in ponds and 
streams have a distinct commercial value as fertilizers. The 
sewage of Paris is used for irrigation purposes with wonder, 
ful effect. The same thing is done at Los Angeles, and 
doubtless will be done in many places hereafter. Neither is 
it necessary, as a rule, to make such elaborate provision for 
the distribution of water through underground pipes in the 
case of agriculture as in that of domestic water supply. In 
the vast majority of instances irrigation water flows in open 
channels. Where it is otherwise it is because the precious 
fluid is scarce, and therefore dear, so that every drop must be 
guarded against loss by evaporation or by seepage into the 
ground. 

Irrigation works in the West range from rude and simple 
ditches, taking their supplies from mountain brooks where 
the water has been diverted by means of small brush dams, to 
great masonry walls which block the outlet of deep canyons, 
holding back the water, which is transported through pipes, 
flumes, and cemented ditches to rich lands miles away. In the 
one case the works have been constructed by a small association 
of farmers, using their own labor and teams ; in the other, 
millions of eastern and foreign capital have been invested. 
In both cases the water is led through main canals to central 
points in the territory to be reclaimed. These mains are of 
all sizes, depending entirely upon the volume of water re- 
quired. They are frequently not more than six feet wide, 
though some of the canals in the San Joaquin Valley are one 
hundred and twenty feet in width. From these mains lat- 
eral ditches reach out in various directions. The individual 
farmer taps the lateral with a shallow ditch, usually made 

312 



APPENDIX 

with a plough, and thus conducts the water where he wants it 
through his own private system of distributers. The man- 
agement of the waters, when the system has once been per- 
fected, is so simple that a child can attend to it. Furnishing 
arid lands with irrigation facilities is really a less formidable 
task than supplying cities with water for domestic and fire 
purposes. The one process is no more mysterious and un- 
natural than the other. 

Although irrigation is both ancient and universal, the 
Anglo-Saxon never dealt with it in a largo way until the last 
half-century, when he found it to be the indispensable condi- 
tion of settlement in large portions of western America, Aus- 
tralia, and South Africa. Through all the centuries of the 
past the art has been the exclusive possession of Indian, 
Latin, and Mongolian races. Its earliest modern traces in 
this country are found in the small gardens of the Mission 
fathers of southern California. They brought the method 
from Mexico and taught it to the Indians. But the real 
cradle of American irrigation as a practical industry is 
Utah. 

In the hands of the Indians and Mexicans of the South- 
west irrigation was a stagnant art, but the white population 
studied it with the same enthusiasm it bestowed upon elec- 
tricity and new mining processes. The lower races merely 
knew that if crops were expected to grow on dry land, they 
must be artificially watered. They proceeded to pour on the 
water by the rudest method. The Anglo-Saxon demanded to 
know why crops required water, and how and when it could 
best be supplied to meet their diverse needs. He has thus 
approached by gradual steps true scientific methods, which 
are producing results unknown before in any part of the 
world. 

The earliest method of irrigation is known as " floodino^," 
and is generally applied by means of shallow basins. A plot 
of ground near the river or ditch from which water is to be 

313 



APPENDIX 

drawn is inclosed by low embankments called checks. These 
checks are multiplied until the whole field is covered. The 
water is then drawn into the highest basin, permitted to 
stand until the ground is thoroughly soaked, and then drawn 
off by a small gate into the next basin. This process is re- 
peated until the entire field is irrigated. This is the system 
practised on the Nile, where the basins sometimes cover sev- 
eral square miles each, while in the West they are often no 
more than four hundred feet square. There is both a crude 
and a skilful way to accomplish the operation of flooding, and 
there is a wide difference in the results obtained by the two 
methods. The Indian and Mexican irrigators, in their igno- 
rance and laziness, seldom attempt to grade the surface of the 
ground. They permit water to remain in stagnant pools 
where there are depressions, while high places stand out as 
dusty islands for generations. All except very sandy soils 
bake in the hot sunshine after being flooded, and the crude 
way to remedy the matter is to turn on more water. Water 
in excess is an injury, and both the soil and the crops re- 
sent this method of treatment. 

The skilful irrigator grades the soil to an even slope of 
about one inch to every hundred inches, filling depressions 
and levelling high places. He "rushes" the water over the 
plot as rapidly as possible, and when the ground has dried 
sufficiently cultivates the soil thoroughly, thus allowing the 
air to penetrate it. The best irrigators have abandoned the 
check system altogether, and have invented better methods 
of flooding the crops. Cereals and grasses must always be 
irrigated by flooding, but the check system seems likely to 
remain only in the land of Spanish speech and tradition, where 
it was born. In Colorado wheat and grass are generally irri- 
gated by a system of shallow plough furrows run diagonally 
across a field. The water is turned from these upon the 
ground, and permitted to spread out into a hundred small 
rills, following the contour of the land. Some farmers be- 

314 



APPENDIX 

stow great pains upon this method, and succeed in wetting 
the ground very evenly. Another method of flooding fields 
is now much used in connection with alfalfa, a wonderful 
forage plant extensively cultivated throughout the arid region. 
This produces three crops a year in the north and six crops 
in the south, and is not only eaten by stock, but by poultry 
and swine. To find the best method of watering this valua- 
ble crop has been the object of careful study and experiment 
in the West. It is now accomplished by means of shallow 
indentations or creases, which are not as large as furrows, but 
accomplish the same purpose. These are made by a simple 
implement at intervals of about twelve inches. They effect a 
very thorough and even wetting of the ground. 

The scientific side of irrigation is to be studied rather in 
connection with the culture of fruit and vegetables than with 
field crops. It is here that the English-speaking irrigators 
of the West have produced their best results. California has 
accomplished more than any other locality, but nothing was 
learned even there until the man from the North had sup- 
planted the Spanish irrigator. The ideal climatic conditions 
of California attracted both wealth and intelligence into its 
irrigation industry. Scarcity of water and high land values 
operated to promote the study of ideal methods. AY^^ero 
water is abundant it is carried in open ditches, and little 
thought is given to the items of seepage through the soil 
and loss by evaporation. Under such conditions water is 
lavishly used, frequently to the injury rather than the bene- 
fit of crops. But in southern California water is as gold, 
and is sought for in mountain tunnels and in the beds of 
streams. A thing so dearly obtained is not to be carelessly 
wasted before it reaches the place of use. Hence, steep and 
narrow ditches cemented on the bottom, or steel pipes and 
wooden flumes, are employed. 

This precious water is applied to the soil by means of 
small furrows run between the trees or rows of vegetables. 

315 



APPENDIX 

The ground has first been evenly graded on the face of each 
slope. Tlie aim of the skilful irrigator is to allow the water 
to saturate the ground evenly in each direction, so as to 
reach the roots of the tree or plant. The stream is small, 
and creeps slowly down the furrow to the end of the orchard, 
where any surplus is absorbed by a strip of alfalfa, which 
acts like a sponge. The land is kept thoroughly cultivated, 
and in the best orchards no weed or spear of grass is ever 
seen ; the water is too costly to waste in the nourishment 
of weeds. Moreover, it is desired to leave the soil open to 
the action of air and sunshine. Nowhere in the world is so 
much care given to the aeration of the soil as in the irrigated 
orchards and gardens of the West. Too much water reduces 
the temperature of the soil, sometimes develops hard-pan, and 
more frequently brings alkali to the surface. For these rea- 
sons modern science has enforced the economical use of 
water, reversing the crude Mexican custom of prodigal waste- 
fulness. The success of the farrow method depends some- 
what upon the texture of the soil, and there are places where 
it cannot be used at all. Such localities are not considered 
favorable to fruit culture. 

Of late years in California the application of water by fur- 
rows has been brought to a marvellous degree of perfection. 
What is known as the " Redlands system " is the best type 
of irrigation methods known in the world. Under this sys- 
tem a small wooden flume or box is placed at the head of 
the orchard. An opening is made opposite each furrow, and 
through this the water flows in the desired quantity, being 
operated by a small gate or slide. The aperture regulates 
the flow of water accurately, and the system is so simple that, 
after it is once adjusted, its operation is as easy as the turn- 
ing of a faucet. The farmer who grows his crops on a fer- 
tile soil, under almost cloudless skies, with a system con- 
trolling the moisture as effective as this, may be said to have 
mastered the forces of nature. The quality of the fruit has 

316 



APPENDIX 

improved immensely since the California methods were per- 
fected. Every fruit-grower realizes that the profit in his 
business comes mostly from the first grade of fruit. Scien- 
tific irrigation makes it possible for him largely to increase 
the percentage of the best fruit, and the difference which 
this makes in the earning capacity of his acres is surprising. 



/weNUE. 




• TCC£3 

l*Oa ■WATtCJ. 
tJK-n TBE6 ^TA<»0^ ON A LITTLa 



■onocR 



Other methods of furrow irrigation have been devised 
which are scarcely less perfect than those used in the Cali- 
fornia oranofe districts. One of the best of these is the re- 
suit of the labors and experiments of Professor A. E. Blount, 
of the Agricultural College at Las Cruces, New Mexico, and 
is illustrated in the accompanying diagram. In this case the 
water is carried in small open ditches, and the furrovvs are 

317 



APPENDIX 



1 



extended in circles around each tree, but the water is never 
allowed to touch the bark. This method is, pe-rhaps, better 
adapted to the general needs of the arid region than the 
more expensive plan of the Californians. It is interesting to 
note that the modern New Mexico method was developed in 
the midst of Indian and Spanish settlements, which still pur- 
sue the methods of antiquity without the slightest abatement 
of their evils. 

One of the most interesting results of irrigation, in a social 
and economic way, is its influence upon the density of popu- 
lation. The densest population in the eastern States obtains 
in Rhode Island, where there are two hundred and seventy- 
six persons to each square mile. In a representative locality 
of southern California, which is in the midst of the older 
settled irrigated districts, there are five hundred persons to 
the sqware mile, practically all of them engaged in horticult- 
ure by means of irrigation. The Nile lands of Egypt sup- 
port a population of twelve hundred and twenty-seven persons 
to the square mile. There is, therefore, no risk whatever in 
predicting that the arid lands of the West will ultimately 
sustain much the densest population in the United States. 

While the perfect conditions for the irrigation industry 
exist only in an arid land, there is no doubt that the same 
methods can and will be used largely in the eastern portion 
of the United States. There is seldom a year when large 
districts east of the Mississippi do not suffer heavy losses 
from the lack of rain at the time when it is needed. What 
irrigation can accomplish under such conditions has been 
strikingly illustrated by Dr. Clarke Gapen, Superintendent of 
the State Insane Asylum at Kankakee, Illinois. This gentle- 
man became convinced that if he could control the moisture 
during the dry period of the Illinois summer, he could readi- 
ly produce, on the farm operated in connection with the pub- 
lic institution, the large quantities of late vegetables which 

318 



APPENDIX 

he bad been in tbe babit of purcbasing for casli. He ob- 
tained an inexpensive pumping -plant and engaged tbe ser- 
vices of a practised irrigator. Tbe result was tbe saving of 
an annual expenditure of fifteen thousand dollars for farm 
products, so that tbe irrigation system more tban paid for it- 
self tbe first year. Dr. Gapen bas stated tbat tbe experiment 
convinced bim " tbat if land is worth one hundred dollars 
per acre in Illinois without irrigation, it is worth five hundred 
dollars with it." If this enterprising official bad suggested 
ten years before tbat irrigation was necessary in Illinois, bo 
would have been regarded as a proper subject for one of tbe 
padded cells in bis own asylum. 

Tbe local application of irrigation is now frequently dis- 
cussed in tbe farm journals of Obio, New York, and other east- 
ern States. Tbe art bas been employed for a number of years 
in the most profitable market-gardens about Boston. Tbe 
western friends of irrigation have tbe utmost confidence tbat 
during tbe next century their methods will be extensively 
adopted in tbe East, resulting in a very great reduction of the 
average farm unit, in tbe assurance of much larger and better 
crops, and in wonderful social gains. 



INDEX 



Adams, Edwaud F., quoted, 130. 

Africa, 13. 

Agua Fria River, Arizona, 239. 

Aualieim, founding and character 
of, 94. 

Ancient Canals in Arizona, 35. 

Anderson, 11. A., 291. 

Animas River, New Mexico, 229. 

Antelope Valley of California, 140. 

Aridity : — Effect ou settlement of 
Middle West, 17 ; key to institu- 
tions of the West, 30. 

Arizona : — Likeness to region of the 
Nile, 23Y ; northern part of terri- 
tory, 238 ; Salt River Valley, 238 ; 
its irrigation systems, 239 ; im- 
portance of storage plans, 239- 
240 ; climate and orange culture, 
241 ; a great fig orchard, 242 ; 
large farms of the present and 
small ones of the future, 242- 
243 ; the people of the territory, 
243. 

Arkansas Valley, 155. 

Asia Minor, 32. * 

Austin, Nevada, 195. 

Australasia, 13. 

Australia, Village Settlement in, 288. 

Aztecs in Mexico, 34. 

Bailey, Professor L. H., quoted, 

111. 
Baldwin, Historian, 34. 
Bear Flag, California's day of, 94. 
Beaverhead Valley, Montana, 223. 



Big Horn Basin, Wyoming, 213. 

Billings, Montana, 227. 

"Billy the Kid," 231. 

Bitter Root Valley, Montana, 225. 

Blue Grass Region of Kentucky 
compared with arid region as to 
fertility, 39. 

Boise City, capital of Idaho, 183. 

Boone, Daniel, 15. 

Boyd, David, historian of the Gree- 
ley Colony, 88. 

Bozeman, Montana, 225. 

Brisbane, Albert, 77. 

Brook Farm, 78-257. 

Bruneau River, Nevada, 199. 

Budd, Governor, 131. 

Bully Creek Valley, Oregon, 192. 

Butte, Montana, 226. 

Cache la Poudre Valley, Colorado, 
155. 

Caldwell, Idaho, 183. 

California : — Why so little under- 
stood, 121 ; influence of former 
literature on the subject, 123 ; 
speculative tendencies of the past, 
128 ; burdens of fruit-growers be- 
fore co-operation was employed, 
130 ; valuable lessons of the last 
twenty years, 131 ; compared with 
France, 131 ; agricultural settle- 
ment in 1880-90, 132; profitable 
lines of production, 133 ; future 
of the olive industry, 134; com- 
petitors in fruit-growing, 135 ; 



321 



INDEX 



the mining industry, 186 ; ten- 
dencies of future growth, 137 ; 
the coast region, 137 ; the Santa 
Clara Valley, 138 ; Southern Cal- 
ifornia, 139 ; Antelope Valley, 
140; Sacramento Valley, 141; ir- 
rigation in Sacr;inieiito Valley, 143; 
the San Joaquin Valley, 143 ; birth 
of raisin industry, 144; effects of 
fall in wheat prices, 144 ; possi- 
bilities of transportation canals, 
145 ; eastern slope of Sierra Ne- 
vada, 146; future of Colorado 
Desert, 147. See "Evolution of 
Southern California," 92. 

Gammas Prairie, Idaho, 179. 

Campbell, Douglas, quoted, 32. 

Carey, ex-Senator J. M., 213-220. 

Carlsbad, New Mexico, 235. 

Carson City, Nevada, 201. 

Carson River, Nevada, 199. 

Carthaginians, 84. 

Chaffey Brothers in Australia, 289. 

Chipman, General N. P., 141. 

Cimarron River, New Mexico, 230. 

City and Suburban Homes Company, 
274. 

City Creek in Salt Lake Valley, 
Utah, 51. 

Cody, William R, 213. 

Clarke's Fork of the Columbia, 176- 
224. 

Cffiur d'Alene Lake, 176. 

Colonization : — Three great eras of, 
12; impulse of Anjerican move- 
ments, 12 ; settlement of Atlantic 
Coast, 14 ; the movement beyond 
the AUeghanies, 14; settlement of 
Mississippi Valley, 17; causes of 
emigration movements, 49 ; ten- 
dencies of present movement from 
abroad, 247. 

Colorado : — The new day in, 150; ef- 
fect of railroad building in, 151 ; 
scenery and climate of, 153 ; min- 
eral resources of, 164 ; the Arkan- 
sas Valley, 155; San Luis Valley, 
155; the Western Slope, 156 ; the 
laud of peaches, 158 ; local pa- 



triotism, 160; present economic 
tendencies, 161. 

Colorado Canyon, 238. ' 

Colorado Desert, 147. 

Colorado Springs, Colorado, 152. 

Columbia River Valley, 188. 

Comstock lode, production of, 195. 

Co-operation : — Lifluence of aridity 
in favoring, 81 ; comparisons with 
conditions in Holland, 32 ; Utah 
commei'cial examples, 64; as em- 
ployed in the Gieeley Colony, Col- 
orado, 89 ; experience of the Ana- 
heim, Califoiiiia, settlers, 95 ; how 
utilized at Riverside, California, 
97 ; California fruit exchanges, 
104 ; colonization with co-opera- 
tive capital, 260 ; the principle im- 
portant to new communities, 281 ; 
the recent experience of Ireland, 
291 ; its adaptation to Anglo- 
Saxon instincts and traditions, 
300 ; its relation to future civil- 
ization, 309. 

Creoles, French, early settlement of, 
in Ohio Valley, 15. 

Cuba, 13. 

Dakota, growth of, 17. 
Dakota, irrigation in, 117. 
Damascus, the effects of irrigation 

in, 41. 
Deccan, Lands of the, 36, 
Denver, Colorado, 150, 154, 161. 
Des Chutes River, Oregon, 193. 
Dewey, Admiral, 297. 

Eden, Garden of, the result of irri- 
gation, 42. 
Eggleston, Edward, quoted, 50. 
P^gypt, 34. 

Elko County, Nevada, 195. 
Ellensburg, Washington, 187. 
El Paso, Texas, 231. 
Emigration Canyon, Utah, 53. 
Esmeralda County, Nevada, 195. 
Eureka, Nevada, 195. 



Fayoom, Proviuce of, 86. 



322 



INDEX 



Finney County, Kansas, 109. 
Flagg, Jack, in the Rustlers' War, 

210. 
FlagstafiF, Arizona, 238. 
Flathead River, Montana, 223. 
Fourier, Fran9ois Marie Charles, 1^. 

Gadsden Purchase, 22. 

Gallatin Valley, Montana, 223-225. 

Garden City, Kansas, 109-113. 

Germany, labor colonies of, 287. 

Gila River, Arizona, 238. 

Gill, Thomas P., 291. 

Gould, Dr. Elgin R. L., 2V4-295. 

Grand Junction, Colorado, 167. 

Grand River, Colorado, 157. 

Groat Falls, Montana, 227. 

GreatPIains,rise of irrigation on, 106. 

Greeley, Horace: — Phalanx move- 
ment supported by, 77 ; encour- 
ages the Colorado project, 80 ; last 
letter to Meeker, 90. 

Greeley Colony of Colorado: — Its 
relation to the phalanx movement 
of the forties, 77 ; Meeker pro- 
poses the undertaking to Greeley, 
80 ; the colony plan compared 
witli the Fourier ideal, 81 ; publi- 
cation of prospectus, 83 ; irriga- 
tion troubles, 84; triinnph of the 
" Greeley potato," 85 ; social life 
in, 87 ; influence of colony on de- 
velopment of Colorado, 90. 

Green River, Colorado, 157. 

Hagerman, J. J., 202. 

Hale, Dr. Edward Everett, connec- 
tion with Plymouth Colony of 
Idaho, 181. 

Half employed, army of, 245. 

Hall, William Hammond, 145. 

Hatch, A. T., 141. 

Helena, Montana, 228. 

Hilgard, Prof. E. W., quoted, 33, 85, 
37. 

Holland, labor colonies of, 28G; com- 
pared to Southern California, 92. 

Homestead law, effect on emigra- 
tion of, 17. 



Honey Lake Valley of California, 
146. 

Hood River, Oregon, 193. 

" Horse-heaven " Country of Wash- 
ington, 186. 

Hudson Bay Company, 180. 

Humboldt, Nevada, town of, 201. 

Humboldt River, Nevada, 199. 

Idaho : — Contrast between north 
and south, 174; wonderful water 
supply, 175; the forest area, 176; 
the prune district, 177; climate and 
healthfulness, 178 ; Upper Snake 
River, 178 ; four periods of settle- 
ment, 180; new Plymouth, 181; 
the " old - timer," 182 ; cities and 
towns, 183. 

Idaho Falls, Idaho, 178. 

Illinois, growth of, after Revolution, 
15. 

Incas in South America, 34. 

Indiana, growth of, after Revolution, 
15. 

Industrial independence secured by 
irrigation, 43. 

Inyo County, California, 147. 

Iowa, growth of, 17. 

Irish Agricultural Organization So- 
ciety, 291. 

Irrigation : — The miracle of, 41 ; 
practical methods of, see Appen- 
dix ; Damascus, the product of, 
42 ; it made the beauties of the 
Garden of Eden, 42 ; opposed to 
land monopoly, 43 ; as an insur- 
ance of crops, 43 ; unfavorable to 
employment of servile labor, 44 ; 
its influence on social life, 45 ; 
foundation of scientific agricult- 
ure, 47 ; Mormons, the American 
pioneers of, 55 ; comparison of 
cost of private and co-operative 
systems, 86. 

Jefferson, President, takes initiative 

in Western exploration, 23. 
Jefferson Valley, Montana, 223. 
John Day River, Oregon, 193. 



323 



INDEX 



Johnson County, Wyoming, 212. 
Jones, Governor John E., 199. 

Kansas, growth of, 17. 
Kansas, irrigation in, 110. 
Kentucky, growth of, after Revolu- 
tion, 15. 
Kootenai River, Montana, 224. 

La Plata River, New Mexico, 229. 

Lassen County, California, 146. 

Lewis and Clarke, the famous jour- 
ney of, 23. 

Lewiston, Idaho, 183. 

Libyan Desert, 36. 

Lincoln, Abraham, a type of set- 
tlers engaged in great era of col- 
onization, 17. 

Lincoln County, Nevada, 195. 

Los Angeles, California, 103. 

Louisiana Purchase, 22. 

Macaulay, Lord, quoted, 245. 

Madison Valley, Montana, 223. 

Malheur River Valley, Oregon, 192. 

Manhattan Valley, Montana, 225. 

Massachusetts Bay Company, 294. 

Maxwell Land Grant, 230. 

Mead, Elwood : — Service in Agri- 
cultural College of Colorado, 215 ; 
important work as State engineer 
of Wyoming, 217-220. 

Meeker, Nathan Cook : — Experience 
with Trumbull Phalanx, 79 ; first 
trip to the Far West, 80 ; origini- 
ates Colorado project, 80 ; death 
of, 91. 

Mesa City, Arizona, 239. 

Milk River Valley, Montana, 223. 

Mills, workingmen's hotels of D. 0., 
274. 

Minnesota, growth of, 17. 

Missoula, Montana, 227. 

Missouri River in Montana, 223- 
226. 

Modjeska, the California colony of 

Madame, 256. 
Modoc County, California, 146. 
Moeris Lake, 36. 



Mohammedans, their admiration for 
Damascus, 42. 

Monroe, President James, 22. 

Montana : — The prosperity of, 222 ; 
influence of mountain topography, 
222 ; early ditches, 223 ; oppor- 
tunities for settlers, 224 ; fruit 
culture, 225 ; Agricultural College 
of, 225 ; important valleys, 225 ; 
social and political life, 226; cities 
and towns, 227. 

Moors, 34. 

Mormons of Utah : — Their common- 
wealth, 51 ; pioneers of American 
irrigation, 51 ; illustrate natural 
economic tendencies of irriga- 
tion, 52 ; arrival of first party in 
Salt Lake Valley, 52 ; system of 
landownership, 57 ; plan of diver- 
sified farms, 61 ; opposed to min- 
ing, 63 ; financial results of their 
labors for forty years, 67 ; four 
leading principles of industrial 
system, 70 ; mortgage of indebted- 
ness, 71 ; relation of church or- 
ganization to industrial success, 74. 

Moscow, Idaho, 184. 

Mountain Ilonie, Idaho, 183. 

Musser, A. Milton., 67. 

Nampa, Idaho, 183. 

Navajo, Indians, New Mexico, 235. 

Nebi-aska, growth of, 17. 

Nebraska irrigation, 115. 

Netherlands, civilization of, com- 
pared with arid region, 32. 

Nevada : — The potential greatness 
of, 194 ; unfounded prejudices in, 
194 ; silver production of the 
past in, 195; undeveloped mineral 
wealth, 196 ; agricultural resources 
of, 198; unused waters of, 199; 
diversion of Nevada wealth to 
other localities, 202 ; the railroad 
situation of, 203 ; future of the 
State of, 205. 

New Mexico : — Inadequacy of water 
supplies, 228 ; the northwestern 
counties, 229 ; the land grants in. 



324 



INDEX 



230 ; the Rio Grande Valley of, 

230; the Pecos Valley of, 231; 

the social fabric of, 235. 
Newell, Frederick Hayiies, on water 

supply of the plains, 113, 114. 
Nez Perc6 Reservation, 1*79. 
Nijn, Fray Marcos de, 228. 
Nile River, silt in, 3G. 
Ninety-seventh meredian, 19-21. 
Nordhoff, Charles, 123-128. 
North, Judge, founder of Riverside 

Colony, 97. 
North Yakima, Washington, 187. 

Ohio, growth of, after Revolution, 
15. 

Olives, future of, 134. 

Ontario, California, 103. 

Oquirrh Mountains, 53. 

Orange culture in California, begin- 
wing of, 100. 

Ordinance of 1787, 16. 

Oregon : — Humid and arid sections 
of, 185; climate and products of, 
191 ; unused water supplies of, 
192; chances for development of, 
193; arid region of, 190. 

Owyhee River, Nevada, 199. 

Palestine, 34. 

Palestine, resemblance between Salt 

Lake Valley and, 53. 
Palmer, General William J., 152- 

202. 
Palouse country of Idaho, 179. 
Parkman, J'rancis, author of the 

Oregon Trail, 23. 
Payette, Idaho, 183. 
Pecos Valley, New Mexico, 231. 
Pend Oreille Lake, 176. 
Pendleton, Oregon, 191. 
Phalanx movement, 77, 78. 
Phtjenix, capital of Arizona, 238. 
Pike, Zebulon, 23. 
Platte Valley, Colorado, 155. 
Plumas County, California, 146. 
Plunkett, the Right Hon. Horace, 

291. 
Plymouth Colony of Idaho, 181. 

3?; 



Pocatello, Idaho, 183. 

Pomona, California, 103. 

Portland, Oregon, 186. 

Prescott, Arizona, 238. 

Prescott, Historian, 34, 

Prickly Valley, Montana, 223. 

Prosser, Washington, 187. 

Provo, Utah, 166. 

Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, 235. 

Puget Sound region, 185. 

QiriNN River, Nevada, 199. 

Rain-ma KINO experiments, 108. 
Raymond, Henry J., debate with 

Greeley, 79. 
Redlands, California, 103. 
Reed, Thomas B., quoted, 119. 
Reid, Whitelaw, quoted, 237. 
Rio Grande River, New Mexico, 230. 
Rio Verde River, Arizona, 239. 
Riverside Colony of California, 97. 
Robertson, James, 15. 
Robinson, Solon, 79. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 297. 
Rustlers' War, 209. 

Sacramento Valley of California, 

141. 
Salmon River, Nevada, 199. 
Salt Lake City, the plan of, 58. 
Salt River, Arizona, 239. 
Salt River Valley of Arizona, 238. 
San Bernardino Valley, 92. 
San Joaquin Valley of California, 

143. 
San Juan River, Colorado, 157. 
San Juan River in New Mexico, 229. 
San Luis Valley, Colorado, 155. 
San Timoteo Hills, 92. 
Santa Clara Valley of California, 

138. 
Semi-arid region, boundaries of, 109. 
Sevier, John, 15. 
Shawhan, Benjamin P., connection 

with Plymouth Colony of Idaho, 

181. 
Sheridan County, Wyoming, 212. 
Shoshone Falls, the Great, 176. 



INDEX 



Smythe, William E., connection with 
Plymouth Colony of Idaho, 181. 

Snake River, 175, 

Social life, effect of irrigation on, 46. 

Socialism not suited to development 
of new countries, 302. 

Soils, effect of aridity on, 3*7. 

South America, 13. 

Southern California: — Evolution of, 
92 ; character and future of, 139. 

Spice Islands, 13. 

Spokane, Washington, 190. 

Staked Plains of Texas, 231. 

Stanford, Mrs. Leland, 141. 

Surplus people, 247. 

Taijor, n. A. W., 101. 
Taylor, L. E., 199. 
Tennessee, growth of, after Revolu- 
tion, 15. 
Texas irrigation, 118. 
Tithiug-house scrip, 63. 
Toltecs in Mexico, 34. 
Travel, statistics of, 20. 
Truckee River, Nevada, 199. 
Trumbull Phalanx of Ohio, 19. 
Tucson, Arizona, 238. 

Uinta countrv of Utah, 170. 

Umatilla Valley, Oregon, 192. 

University of Arizona experiments 
in analyzing silt of Colorado River, 
40. 

Utah: — The pleasant land of, 164; 
the scene from Capitol Hill, 104; 
Utah, Salt Lake, and Weber val- 
leys, 166 ; mineral resources, 166; 
the climate, 167 ; agricultural con- 
tradictions, 168 ; land open to set- 
tlement, 169; irrigation laws and 
customs, 171. 

Van Dykk, T. S., quoted, 128. 
Vermejo River, New Mexico, 230. 
Virgin River, Nevada, 199. 
Virginia City, Nevada, 195. 



Walkkr River, Nevada, 199. 

Walla Walla Valley, Washington, 
187. 

Warren, Francis E., 220. 

Wasatch Mountains, 53. 

Washington: — Arid region of, 185; 
" Horse-IIeaven " country, 186; 
importanjt streams, 187; soil and 
climate of, 188; products and 
markets of, 189. 

Water Laws : — The struggle for 
water, 214 ; where statesmanship 
failed, 215; evils of litigation, 
216; the Wyoming example, 
217. 

Webber, Thomas G., 65. 

Wciser, Idaho, 183. 

Wells, Captain James M., 180. 

Wells, Governor Ueber M., 71. 

Wenatchee River, Washington, 187. 

Western slope of Colorado, 156. 

Wheatland, Wyoming, 213. 

Willamette River, Oregon, 186. 

Willow Creek Valley,' Oregon, 192. 

Windmill irrigation. 111. 

Woodruff, Wilford, 55. 

Wyoming: — Law-giver of the arid 
region, 207 ; the stock - raising 
industry of, 208; the Rustlers' 
War in, 209; products and devel- 
opment of, 212; Big Horn Basin, 
212; excellence of water laws 
of, 218 ; the State's influential 
position in, 221. 

Yakima Valley of Washington, 
187. 

Ybarrola, Senor do, 105. 

Yellow River of China, 36. 

Young, Brighain, estimate of char- 
acter and achievements of, 72. 

Yuma, Arizona, 238. 

Zion's Co-operative Mercantile In- 
stitution, 65. 
Zimi Indians, 235. 



THE END 



By POULTNEY BIGELOW 



WHITE MAN'S AFRICA. Illustrated by R. Caton 
WooDViLLE and Fkederic Remingtox, and from 
Photographs. Post 8vo, Cloth, Uncut Edges and 
Gilt Top, $2 50. 

We very much doubt if a better or truer idea can be gotten 
from any source of tiie real situation of affairs, social and political, 
in South Africa than in these pages. Certain it is nowhere will 
one find the information presented more interestingly or attrac- 
tively. — Christian Intelligencer, N. Y. 

Mr. Bigelow has a keen eye and a practical judgment, which 
makes his always readable story better worth the reading than so 
many travel books, which are only superficially interesting. It 
abounds in facts large and small, in simple but valuable statistics, 
and in touches which throw passing gleams of light on many 
points of great interest. — Ihe American, Philadelphia. 

HISTORY OF THE GERMAN STRUGGLE FOR 
LIBERTY. Copiously Illustrated with Drawings by 
R. Caton Woodville, and with Portraits and Maps. 
Two Volumes. Crown 8 vo, Cloth, Ornamental, Uncut 
Edges and Gilt Tops, $5 00. (In a Box.) 

Sound scholarship, ample research, a patriotic purpose, and the 
command of a graceful and vigorous literary style have gone to 
tlie making of the "History of the German Struggle for Liberty." — 
Boston Beacon. 

THE BORDERLAND OF CZAR AND KAISER. 

Notes from Both Sides of the Russian Frontier. Illus- 
trated byFEEDEKic Remington. Post 8vo, Cloth,Or- 
namental, $2 00. 

A thoroughly enjoyable picture of official and social life on 
both sides of the frontier, and throws, incidentally, light upon some 
of the great questions of European politics. — Philadelphia Inquirer. 



HARPER & BROTHERS, Publishers 

NEW YORK AND LONDON 

[ny of the above works will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, to any 
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By a. H. savage LANDOR 



IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND. An Account of a 
Journey into Tibet, Capture by the Tibetan Lamas and 
Soldiers, Imprisonment, Torture, and Ultimate Release, 
brought about by Dr. Wilson and the Political Peshkar 
Karak Sing-Pal. With the Government Enquiry and 
Report and other Official Documents, by J. Larkin, 
Esq., Deputed by the Government of India. With 
One Photogravure, Eiglit Colored Plates, Fifty Full- 
page and about One Hundred and Fifty Text Illustra- 
tions, and a Map from Surveys by the Author. 2 Vols. 
8vo, Cloth, Ornamental, Uncut Edges and Gilt Tops, 
89 00. 

A very remarkable work from wliatever point of view it may be 
read, and one which will insure its author a distinct and prominent 
place among European travellers of the nineteenth century. — N. Y. 
Mail and Express. 

It is a book easy to read and hard to put down, for the scene is 
constantly changing, the action is full of surprises, and the de- 
scriptions of scenery enhance the significance of the occurrences de- 
scribed. — New York Tribune. 

Tibet, the forbidden land, fs not familiar ground, and an ob- 
server as competent as Mr. Landor has much to tell quite apart 
from his thrilling personal experiences. He writes well, and his 
photographs and drawings give excellent views of some of the 
grandest scenery in the world and some of the most picturesque 
things and people. He tells a plain manly tale, without affectation 
or bravado, and it is a book that will be read with interest and ex- 
citement, even in those parts of it whicli only describe a journey 
through an unknown region. — London Times. 



HARPER & BROTHERS, PuBLisnEKS 

NEW YORK AND LONDON 

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